Linguistic and cultural background
"Mind-monkey" 心猿 is an exemplary animal metaphor. Some figures of speech are cross-linguistically common, verging upon linguistic universals; many languages use "monkey" or "ape" words to mean "mimic", for instance, Italian "to mock; to mimic" < "monkey; ape", Japanese ''sarumane'' 猿真似 "copycat; superficial imitation", and English ''monkey see, monkey do'' or ''''). Other animal metaphors have culture-specific meanings; compare English '''' "cowardly; timid'; easily frightened" and Chinese ''jixin'' 雞心 "heart-shaped; cordate".
The four elements of Chinese ''xinyuanyima'' or Japanese ''shin'en'iba'' are ''xin'' or ''shin'' 心 "heart; mind", ''yi'' or ''i'' 意 "thought", ''yuan'' or ''en'' 猿 "monkey", and ''ma'' or ''ba'' 馬 "horse"'.
The 心 "heart; mind" and 意 "idea; will"
The psychological components of the "mind-monkey will-horse" metaphor are Chinese ''xin'' or Sino-Japanese ''shin'' or ''kokoro'' "heart; mind; feelings, affections; center" and ''yi'' or ''i'' 'thought, idea; opinion, sentiment; will, wish; meaning'. This Chinese character 心 was graphically simplified from an original pictogram of a heart, and 意 "thought; think" is an ideogram combining 心 under ''yin'' "sound; tone; voice" denoting "sound in the mind; thought; idea".
In Chinese Buddhism and Japanese Buddhism, ''xin''/''shin'' 心 "heart; mind" generally translates Sanskrit '''' "the mind; state of mind; consciousness" and ''yi''/''i'' 意 translates Sanskrit '''' "the mental organ; deliberation". Some Buddhist authors have used 心 and 意 interchangeably for "mind; cognition; thought". Compare these ''Digital Dictionary of Buddhism'' glosses
*心 "Spirit, motive, sense. The mind as the seat of intelligence, mentality, idea. … Thought, intellect, feeling; "
*意 "Thought, intellect; ; the mind; ".
For example, take the Buddhist word Chinese ''xin-yi-shi'' or Japanese ''shin-i-shiki'' 心意識 that compounds three near-synonyms. Abhidharma theory uses this word as a general term for "mind; mentality", but Yogacara theory of Eight Consciousnesses distinguishes ''xin''/''shin'' 心 "store consciousness", ''yi''/''i'' 意 "''manas'' consciousness", and ''shi''/''shiki'' 識 "six object-contingent consciousnesses".
''Xinyuanyima'' 心猿意馬 "distracted; indecisive; restless" is comparable with some other Chinese collocations.
*''xinmanyizu'' 心滿意足 "perfectly content; fully satisfied"
*''xinhuiyilan'' 心灰意懶 "disheartened; discouraged; hopeless"
*''xinhuangyiluan'' 心慌意亂 "alarmed and hysterical; perturbed"
*''xinfanyiluan'' 心煩意亂 "terribly upset; confused and worried"
The 猿 "monkey" and 馬 "horse"
The animal components of the "mind-monkey will-horse" metaphor are Chinese ''yuan'' or Japanese ''en'' "gibbon; monkey; ape" and ''ma'' or ''ba'' "horse".
Chinese ''yuan'' 猿 originally meant the "Agile Gibbon, Black-handed Gibbon, ''Hylobates agilis''" but now generally means "ape; monkey" . Robert van Gulik concludes that until about the fourteenth century, ''yuan'' designated the gibbon, but due to extensive deforestation, its habitat shrank to remote southern mountains; from then on, "the majority of Chinese writers knowing about the gibbon only by hearsay, they began to confuse him with the macaque or other Cynopithecoids." Other common Chinese "monkey" names include ''feifei'' 狒狒 "Hamadryas baboon, ''Papio hamadryas''", ''hou'' "monkey; ape", and ''mihou'' 獼猴 or ''husun'' 猢猻 "rhesus macaque, rhesus monkey, ''Macaca mulatta''", Victor H. Mair reconstructs Old Sinitic *''mug-gug'', which "probably ultimately derives from the same African word as English 'macaque'" and is reminiscent of Sanskrit "mara?āsana " . These "monkey; ape" characters combine the "dog " with different phonetic elements, such as the ''yuan'' phonetic in ''yuan'' 猿.
In Chinese mythology, ''yuan'' "gibbons" were supposedly long-lived because they could ''yinqi'' 引氣 "absorb life-force", which is a '''' 導引 "Daoist gymnastic technique". Chinese classic texts mentioned "monkey leaping" and "monkey bowing" yoga . One of the 2nd-century BCE Mawangdui Silk Texts depicts 28 Daoist gymnastic exercises, many of which are named after animals, including number 22 ''muhou'' "macaque". In the present day, ''houquan'' 猴拳 "Monkey Kung Fu" is a Chinese martial arts style and ''xinyuanyima'' "mind-monkey will-horse" is a Daoist breath meditation technique.
When one breathes in and out, one's concentration causes the generative force to rise and fall thus slowly turning the wheel of the law. Count from one to ten and then from ten to one hundred breaths with the heart following the counting to prevent it from wandering outside. When the heart and breathing are in unison, this is called ''locking up the monkey heart'' and ''tying up the running horse of intellect''.
The Japanese kanji 猿 is pronounced as Sino-Japanese ''en'' < ''yuan'' or native ''saru'' "monkey", especially the indigenous "Japanese Macaque, ''Macaca fuscata''". In Japanese Shinto tradition, the monkey deity Sarutahiko was a divine messenger. Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney contrasts how, "in earlier periods the dominant meaning of the monkey was that of mediator between deities and humans. Later in history, its meaning as a scapegoat became increasingly dominant."
Chinese ''ma'' 馬 "horse", which was the linguistic source for Sino-Japanese ''ba'' or ''ma'' 馬 "horse", originally referred to Przewalski's Horse and later the Mongolian horse, Ferghana horse, etc. Horses were considered divine animals in both China and Japan. For the Chinese, Edward H. Schafer says,
He was invested with sanctity by ancient tradition, endowed with prodigious qualities, and visibly stamped with the marks of his divine origin. A revered myth proclaimed him a relative of the dragon, akin to the mysterious powers of water. Indeed, all wonderful horses, such as the steed of the pious Hsüan-tsang which, in later legend , carried the sacred scriptures from India, were avatars of dragons, and in antiquity the tallest horses owned by the Chinese were called simply "dragons."
For the Japanese, the ancient Shinto practice of offering ''shinme'' 神馬 "sacred horses" to shrines has evolved into the modern donation of symbolic ''Shinto '' 絵馬 "votive tablets"'.
Besides the "mind-monkey idea-horse" metaphor, monkeys and horses have further associations. In Chinese astrology, ''wu'' "" and ''shen'' "" are the 7th and 9th of the 12 zodiacal animals. In Chinese animal mythology, monkeys supposedly bring good health to horses. The ''Bencao Gangmu'' records the "custom of keeping a female monkey in the horse's stable to ward off sickness ".
Early literary history of "mind-monkeys"
This section summarizes Chinese and Japanese developments of ''xinyuan'' or ''shin'en'' 心猿 "mind-monkey" and ''yima'' or ''iba'' 意馬 "idea-horse" collocations and their synonyms. The earliest known textual usages are presented chronologically.
Chinese "mind monkey" collocations
Chinese authors coined "mind monkey" expressions from the through the Song Dynasty . In modern usage, some terms are considered Classical Chinese, but others like ''xinyuanyima'' "mind-monkey will-horse" are Standard Mandarin. Unless otherwise noted, translations are by Carr .
The ca. 406 ''Weimojie suoshuo jing'' 維摩詰所說經 was Kumarajiva's groundbreaking CE Chinese translation of the ''Vimalakirti Sutra''. It introduced "mind-monkey" in the simile ''xin ru yuanhou'' 心如猨猴 "heart/mind like a monkey/ape" . "Since the mind of one difficult to convert is like an ape, govern his mind by using certain methods and it can then be broken in" . Carr suggests the subsequent line about ''xiang ma'' 象馬 "elephants and horses" having unruly natures could have affected the later ''yima'' "idea-horse" term.
The ''Mengyu chanhui shi'' 蒙預懺悔詩 "Poem Repenting Foolish Pleasure" is attributed to Emperor Jianwen of Liang , who was a renowned author. This poem has the oldest known usage of ''xinyuan'' "mind-monkey", but with ''aima'' 愛馬 "love-horse" instead of ''yima'' 意馬 "idea-horse". "The three disciplines/cultivations expel the love-horse, and the six recollections/ideas still the mind-monkey." This Buddhistic poem has numerous graphic variants, including these ''sanxun'' 三循 "three disciplines" for ''sanxiu'' 三修 "three cultivations" and ''liuyi'' 六意 "six ideas" for ''liunian'' 六念 "six recollections" . Based on these contextual graphic inconsistencies, Carr suggests the possibility that a scribe transposed Jianwen's original ''yima'' 意馬 "idea-horse" as ''aima'' 愛馬 "love-horse".
The ''Daci'ensi sanzang fashizhuan'' 大慈恩寺三藏法師傳 "Biography of the Tripitaka Dharma Master of the Temple of Great Compassionate Blessings" is a biography of Xuanzang written by his disciple Kuiji . This record of the Consciousness-Only Buddhism, has a memorial dated 657 CE that parallels ''yima'' "idea-/will-horse" with ''qingyuan'' 情猿 "emotion-/feeling-monkey": "Now if you wish to entrust your thoughts to the Chan sect, you must make your mind as pure as still water, control your emotion-monkey's indolence and fidgeting, and restrain your idea-horse's haste and galloping."
The Tang Dynasty poet Xu Hun 許渾 wrote the first known parallel between "mind-monkey" and "idea-horse." His ''Zengti Du yinju'' 贈題杜隱居 "Poem Written for Sir Du the Recluse" says: "Nature exhausts the mind-monkey's hiding, spirit disperses the idea-horse's moving/stopping. Guests who come ought to know this: both self and world are unfeeling."
The common ''xinyuanyima'' "mind-monkey will-horse" phrase dates back to a ''bianwen'' 變文 "Vernacular Chinese transformation text" narrative version of the ''Weimojie suoshuo jing'' that was discovered in the Mogao Caves. This ''jiangjingwen'' 講經文 "sutra lecture text" dated 947 CE says: "Within the indeterminable and unfathomable depths, the mind-monkey and idea-horse cease their craziness."
The 1075 CE ''Wuzhen pian'', which is a Daoist classic on ''Neidan''-style internal alchemy, used ''xinyuan'' "mind-monkey" without "horse".
Thoroughly understanding the mind-monkey, the machinations in the heart, by three thousand achievements one becomes a peer of heaven. There naturally is a crucible to cook the dragon and tiger; Why is it necessary to support a household and be attached to spouse and children?
Cleary glosses ''xinyuan'' as "the unruly mind, jumping from one object to another."
The Song Dynasty poet Zhu Yi 朱翌 reversed the Tang lyrical ''xinyuanyima'' expression into ''yimaxinyuan'' "will-horse mind-monkey". His ''Shuixuanshi'' 睡軒詩 "Sleeping Porch Poem" says: "Haste is useless with the idea-horse and mind-monkey, so take off your baggage someplace deep within dreamland."
The ca. 1200 ''Nan Tang shu'' 南唐書 "History of the Southern Tang" used the simile ''yi ru ma xin ru nao'' 意如馬心如猱 "ideas like a horse and mind like a gibbon/monkey". Congshan 從善 , seventh son of the figurehead Emperor Yuanzong of Southern Tang, confesses: "Long ago in my youth, my ideas were like a horse and my mind was like a monkey. I was indolent with happiness and enjoyed lust, was pleased with rewards and forgot toil."
The ca. 1590 ''Xiyouji'' 西遊記 "''Journey to the West''" popularized "mind-monkey" more than any other text. This famous Chinese novel centers upon the pilgrimage of Xuanzang to India, and frequently uses ''xinyuan'' and ''yima'' expressions . Many are found in the couplet titles of chapters, for instance, 30 "The evil demon attacks the true Dharma; The Horse of the Will recalls the Monkey of the Mind". The preeminent translator Anthony C. Yu describes controlling the mind-monkey and will-horse as "a theme central to the entire narrative and which receives repeated and varied developments." Chapter 7 has this exemplary poem:
A monkey's transformed body weds the human mind. Mind is a monkey – this, the truth profound. The Great Sage , Equal to Heaven, is no idle thought. For how could the post of justly show his gifts? The Horse works with the Monkey – and this means both Mind and Will, Must firmly be harnessed and not ruled without. All things return to Nirvāna, taking this one course: In union with Tathāgata to live beneath twin trees.
Many ''Xiyouji'' scholars allegorically interpret ''xinyuan'' "heart-/mind-monkey" as the protagonist monkey-man Sun Wukong and ''yima'' "idea-/will-horse" as the dragon prince White Horse that enters the story in chapter 15. There are long-standing scholarly disagreements over whether Sun Wukong evolved from Hanuman, the monkey hero in the ''Ramayana''. It is "imagistically proper" for Sun to be a monkey, says Mair , because "Zen thought symbolizes the restless and unbridled mind of man as an "ape/monkey-mind" 心猿."
Japanese "mind-monkey" collocations
Japanese Buddhist monks not only imported Sino-Japanese vocabulary such as ''shin'en'' < ''xinyuan'' 心猿 "mind-monkey" and ''iba'' < ''yima'' 意馬 "idea-horse", but also invented analogous Japanese words like ''i'en'' 意猿 "idea-monkey" and ''shinba'' 心馬 "mind-horse". Unless otherwise noted, translations are by Carr . The earliest known usages of relevant "mind-monkey" terminology are shown in the table below.
During the Heian period , the Chinese "mind-monkey" and "idea-horse" were paraphrased as ''i'en'' 意猿 "idea-monkey" and ''shinba'' 心馬 "mind-horse". The 797 CE ''Sangō Shiiki'' 三教指帰 "Indications of the Three teachings " was written by Kūkai, who founded esoteric Shingon Buddhism. Two passages introduced Japanese "mind-monkey" and "will-horse" neologisms. One used ''i'en'' 意猿 "idea/will monkey" with the common word ''nouma'' 野馬 "wild horse": "The four great difficulties overexcite the wild horse's fast gallop, the twenty-six contributory causes mislead the plans of the idea-monkey." Another passage used ''shinba'' 心馬 "heart/mind horse" and ''isha'' 意車 "idea-chariot": "Whip the mind-horse to gallop off in the eight directions, grease the idea chariot and gambol within the nine heavens."
During the Kamakura period , Pure Land Buddhism introduced the Sino-Japanese terms ''shin'en'' 心猿 "mind-monkey" and ''iba'' 意馬 "idea-horse", and an early travelogue popularized them. The ''Genkyū hōgo'' 元久法語 "Genkyū era Buddhist Sermons" is a collection of writings by Hōnen, the founder of the . His ca. 1205 "Tozanjō 登山状 "Mountain Climbing Description" uses ''iba'' with ''shin'en'': "When you wish to enter the gate of determined goodness, then your idea-horse runs wild within the bounds of the six sense objects . When you wish to enter the gate of scattered goodness, then your mind-monkey gambols and jumps across the branches of the ten evil deeds ." The 1223 ''Kaidōki'' 海道記 "Record of Coast Road Travels" was a travelogue of the Tōkaidō from Kyoto to . It used ''shinsen'' 心船 "heart/mind boat" meaning "imaginary journey" with ''iba'' 意馬 "idea/will horse" and wrote ''arasaru'' 荒猿 "wild monkey" for ''arasu'' 荒す "treat roughly/wildly": "I rowed the mind-boat for make-believe. As yet, I neither poled across myriad leagues of waves on the Coast Road, nor roughly rode the idea-horse to urge it on through clouds of the distant mountain barrier."
During the early Edo period , the four-character Chinese collocations ''yimashinen'' 意馬心猿 and ''shinenyima'' 心猿意馬 were introduced into Japanese. The 1675 ''Man'an kana hōgo'' 卍庵仮名法語, which was a vernacular collection of Zen sermons, first used ''shin'en'iba'' 意馬心猿. "For this reason, even if you reside somewhere with remote mountain streams and desolate tranquillity, and sit in silent contemplation, you will only be passing idle time because you are isolated from the road of the mind-monkey and idea-horse." The 1699 Kabuki play ''Wakoku gosuiten'' 和国五翠殿 "Japan's Five Green Palaces" repeatedly used ''ibashin'en''. For instance, the first act described two prisoners tied to a tree: "They are the idea-horse and mind-monkey themselves. So if this pine tree is the pole of Absolute Reality, then these two prisoners are a greedy monkey - no, a cat - and a horse running wild; and they are just like the idea-horse and mind-monkey."
"Mind-monkey" in English
Mind monkey and monkey mind both occur in English usage, originally as translations of ''xinyuan'' or ''shin'en'' and later as culturally-independent images. Michael Carr concludes,
''Xinyuan-yima'' 心猿意馬 "monkey of the heart/mind and horse of the ideas/will" has been a successful metaphor. What began 1500 years ago as a Buddhist import evolved into a standard Chinese and Japanese literary phrase. Rosenthal says a proverb's success "'depends on certain imponderables," particularly rhythm and phrasing. Of the two animals in this metaphor, the "monkey" phrase was stronger than the "horse" because ''xinyuan'' "mind-monkey" was occasionally used alone and it had more viable variants . The "mental-monkey" choice of words aptly reflects restlessness, curiosity, and mimicry associated with this animal. Dudbridge explains how "the random, uncontrollable movements of the monkey symbolise the waywardness of the native human mind before it achieves a composure which only Buddhist discipline can effect."
Translations
English translations of Chinese ''xinyuan'' or Japanese ''shin'en'' commonly include "mind monkey", "monkey mind", and "monkey of the mind".
This first list compares how 11 bilingual Chinese dictionaries translate ''xinyuanyima'' 心猿意馬 and ''yimaxinyuan'' 意馬心猿.
*【意馬心猿】 his will is like a horse's, and his heart like an ape's; inconstant and strong
*【心猿意馬】 gibbon heart and horse ideas, – unsettled and wandering
*【心猿意馬】 irresolute; vacillating; fluctuating ... Inconstant; fickle in the mind
*【意馬心猿】 Unsettled in mind; fluctuating; wavering in purpose
*【意馬心猿】The intents of the mind and heart are like the horse and ape – very difficult to bring under control; undecided
*【心猿意馬】 Restless and unsettled
*【心猿意馬】 the intents of the mind and heart are like the horse and the ape – very difficult to bring under control; undecided
*【心猿意馬】 cannot make up one's mind; indecision; procrastination
*【心猿意馬】 prone to outside attractions, temptations; in a restless and jumpy mood
*【心猿意馬】 restless and whimsical; fanciful and fickle; capricious
*【心猿意馬】 in a restless and jumpy mood / capricious
*【心猿意馬】 restless and whimsical; fanciful and fickle; capricious; when one meant gibbon, he thinks of a horse
*【心猿意馬】 ① capricious; restless ② indecisive
*【意馬心猿】 indecisive; wavering
Six of these 11 Chinese-English dictionaries enter only the common ''xinyuanyima'' "mind-monkey idea-horse," 2 only the reverse ''yimaxinyuan'', and 3 enter both. Three translation equivalents give English "ape" rather than "gibbon" or "monkey" for ''yuan'' 猿, and "ape" sounds metaphorically stronger than "monkey." Note how several of these dictionaries have identical translations.
This second list compares how 9 bilingual Japanese dictionaries translate ''ibashin'en'' 意馬心猿, none enters ''shin'en'iba'' 心猿意馬.
*【意馬心猿】 Clamorous demands of passion
*【意馬心猿】 overmastering passion
*【意馬心猿】Passions hard of control; uncontrollable passions
*【意馬心猿】Clamorous demands of passion; passions
*【意馬心猿】 clamorous demands of passion; passions; wild horses of passions and flighty monkeys of desires
*【意馬心猿】 uncontrollable passions
*【意馬心猿】 clamorous demands of passion; passions
*【意馬心猿】 passions
*【意馬心猿】 the clamorous demands of passion; passions
All 9 Japanese-English dictionaries mention "passion" or "passions." Note how Saito's "uncontrollable passions" first appeared in 1930 and was copied into 6 other dictionaries. The 5 editions of Kenkyūsha's New Japanese-English Dictionary illustrate lexicographical modifications. Editors copied the "clamorous demands of passion" phrase from the 1st edition into all the subsequent versions. The 2nd first added "uncontrollable" to "passions," which was copied in later editions. The 3rd edition included a literal translation "wild horses of passions and flighty monkeys of desires", but this was omitted from the 4th and 5th .
Popular culture
Examples of "mind monkey" are predictably common in Chinese popular culture. For instance, ''Sam yuen yi ma'' 心猿意馬 – the pronunciation of ''Xinyuanyima'' "mind-monkey will-horse" – was a 1999 Hong Kong movie by Stanley Kwan. However, examples of "mind monkey" are surprisingly widespread in modern English culture. For instance, there are blogs named "Mind Monkey!", "Mind of the Monkey", "Monkey Mind", and "No monkey mind".
In English-language publishing, fewer books are titled with "mind monkey", such as ''Master the Mind Monkey'' , than "monkey mind". "Taming" is common among ''Taming the Monkey Mind'' , ''Taming the Monkey Mind; A Guide to Pure Land Practice'' , and ''Taming Our Monkey Mind: Insight, Detachment, Identity'' . Other examples of book titles include ''Samba and the Monkey Mind'' , ''Meeting the Monkey Halfway'' , ''Your Monkey Mind Connection'' , and ''Still the Monkey'' .
The originally Buddhist "mind monkey" metaphor is also known in popular English-language music. "Mad Melancholy Monkey Mind" is a band. There are albums entitled "Mind Monkey" , "Monkey Mind" , and "Monkey Mind Control" . Song titles include "The Monkey on the Mind" and "Monkey Mind" .
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