Tiantai is one of the important sects of Buddhism in China, Korea and Japan, also called the Lotus School because of its emphasis on the Lotus Sutra. It was founded by Zhiyi during the Sui Dynasty in China. During the subsequent Tang Dynasty it became one of the leading Chinese Buddhist schools, with many large temples supported by emperors and wealthy patrons, with many thousands of monks and millions of followers.
Tiantai is a Mahāyāna school established at Tiantai Mountain in what is now Zhejiang Province. Its headquarters temple was Gouqing-si, which still exists and is a site of tourism. The official line of transmission lists the Indian Buddhist scholar Nagarjuna and Chinese monks Huiwen and Huisi as Zhiyi's predecessors, however most modern scholars believe Zhiyi is in fact the school's founder. The school's sixth patriarch, Miaole is accredited for his clarifying commentaries on Zhiyi's writings.
The founding of the Tiantai school was a response to the growing challenge amongst Chinese Buddhists. Various Chinese pilgrims and translators had gathered and translated a huge body of Buddhist scriptures, commentaries and writings from India. However, due to the vagaries of ancient travel and communications, these texts were often collected in a very eclectic - or even haphazard - manner. Collections of texts were often gathered from multiple schools of Buddhist philosophy. Occasionally, incomplete collections were brought back to China, without awareness that significant texts were missing. Texts separated by generations of philosophical developments were lumped together as contemporaries. As more and more texts became available, it was increasingly clear that many of these texts could not possibly be reconciled with one another. Many Chinese Buddhists scholars wondered how the Buddha could have possibly taught all of these seemingly contradictory doctrines. More importantly, which teaching represents the Buddha's ultimate intentions?
Zhiyi's response was to analyse and organize all the and Mahayana Sutras into a system of five periods and eight types of teachings. For example, many elementary doctrines and bridging concepts had been taught early in the Buddha's advent when the vast majority of the people during his time was not yet ready to grasp the 'ultimate truth'. These teachings were an ''upaya'', or skillful means, were simply an example of the Buddha employing his boundless wisdom to lead those people towards the truth. Subsequent teachings delivered to relatively more advanced followers thus represent a more complete and accuracte picture of the Buddha's teachings, and did away with some of the philosophical 'crutches' introduced earlier. Zhiyi's classification culminated with the Lotus Sutra, which he held to be .
Tiantai thus became doctrinally broad, able to absorb and give rise to other movements within Buddhism. Zhiyi emphasized both scriptural study and practice, and taught the rapid attainment of Buddhahood through observing the mind. He also took up a principle of triple truth derived from Nagarjuna:
*Phenomena are empty of self-nature
*Phenomena exist from a worldly perspective
*Phenomena are both empty of existence and exist provisionally at once
The transient world of is thus seen as one with the unchanging, undifferentiated ground of existence. This doctrine was elaborated in a complex esoteric cosmology of 3000 interpenetrating realms of existence.
Most scholars regard the Tiantai as the first truly school of Buddhist thought. The schools of Buddhism that had existed in China prior to the emergence of the Tiantai are generally believed to represent direct transplantations from India, with little modification to their basic doctrines and methods. The creation of the Tiantai school signified the maturation and integration of Buddhism in the Chinese context. No longer content to simply translate texts received from Indian sources, Chinese Buddhists began to apply new analyses to old texts, and even to produce new scriptures and commentaries that would attain significant status within the East Asian sphere. The Tiantai emphasis on the ''Lotus Sutra'' would be developed and expanded by the Japanese monk Nichiren, giving rise to Nichiren Buddhism- a school of Buddhism seen by some scholars as playing a similar role in Japan to that of the Tiantai school in China.
Sunday, September 21, 2008
Sutra of Forty-two Chapters
The Sutra of Forty-two Chapters is the earliest surviving sutra translated into . It was translated by two ordained Yuezhi monks, Kasyapa-Matanga and , in 67 CE. Because of its early date, it is regarded as "the First Sutra" and is accorded a very significant status.
In the Book of Later Han history, Emperor Ming of Han was said to have dreamed of a "golden man," which his advisors connected with the . Because of his dream and a thousand-year-old prediction from the Book of Zhou, the emperor ordered a delegation to go west looking for the Buddha's teachings, which encountered Kasyapa-Matanga and Dharmaraksha, who they brought back to China as well as many sutras and relics from the Buddha, reportedly on the back of a white horse. When they reached the Chinese capital of Luoyang, the emperor had the White Horse Temple built for them.
They translated six texts, the ''Sutra of Dharmic-Sea Repertory'' , ''Sutra of the Buddha's Deeds in His Reincarnations'' , ''Sutra of Terminating Knots in the Ten Holy Terras'' , ''Sutra of the Buddha's Reincarnated Manifestations'' , ''Compilation of the Divergent Versions of the Two Hundred and Sixty Precepts'' , and the ''Sutra of Forty-two Chapters''. Only the last one has survived.
The ''Sutra of Forty-two Chapters'' consists of a brief prologue and 42 short chapters , composed largely of quotations from the Buddha. Most chapters begin "The Buddha said..." , but several provide the context of a situation or a question asked of the Buddha.
It is unclear whether the sutra existed in Sanskrit in this form, or was a compilation of a series of passages extracted from other canonical works in the manner of the Analects of Confucius. This latter hypothesis also explains the similarity of the repeated "The Buddha said..." and "The Master said," familiar from Confucian texts, and may have been the most natural inclination of the Buddhist translators in the Confucian environment, and more likely to be accepted than a lengthy treatise. Among those who consider it based on a corresponding Sanskrit work, it is in style considered to be older than other Mahayana Sutras, because of its simplicity of style and naturalness of method.
The similarity of the Buddha described in the text with the Eight Immortals of Chinese legend, in terms of longevity and supernatural abilities, is perhaps to make the religion more familiar to .
Story of translation
In the Book of Later Han history, Emperor Ming of Han was said to have dreamed of a "golden man," which his advisors connected with the . Because of his dream and a thousand-year-old prediction from the Book of Zhou, the emperor ordered a delegation to go west looking for the Buddha's teachings, which encountered Kasyapa-Matanga and Dharmaraksha, who they brought back to China as well as many sutras and relics from the Buddha, reportedly on the back of a white horse. When they reached the Chinese capital of Luoyang, the emperor had the White Horse Temple built for them.
They translated six texts, the ''Sutra of Dharmic-Sea Repertory'' , ''Sutra of the Buddha's Deeds in His Reincarnations'' , ''Sutra of Terminating Knots in the Ten Holy Terras'' , ''Sutra of the Buddha's Reincarnated Manifestations'' , ''Compilation of the Divergent Versions of the Two Hundred and Sixty Precepts'' , and the ''Sutra of Forty-two Chapters''. Only the last one has survived.
Structure and comparison with other works
The ''Sutra of Forty-two Chapters'' consists of a brief prologue and 42 short chapters , composed largely of quotations from the Buddha. Most chapters begin "The Buddha said..." , but several provide the context of a situation or a question asked of the Buddha.
It is unclear whether the sutra existed in Sanskrit in this form, or was a compilation of a series of passages extracted from other canonical works in the manner of the Analects of Confucius. This latter hypothesis also explains the similarity of the repeated "The Buddha said..." and "The Master said," familiar from Confucian texts, and may have been the most natural inclination of the Buddhist translators in the Confucian environment, and more likely to be accepted than a lengthy treatise. Among those who consider it based on a corresponding Sanskrit work, it is in style considered to be older than other Mahayana Sutras, because of its simplicity of style and naturalness of method.
The similarity of the Buddha described in the text with the Eight Immortals of Chinese legend, in terms of longevity and supernatural abilities, is perhaps to make the religion more familiar to .
Satyasiddhi
The Satyasiddhi school of Buddhism is based on the text known as the Satyasiddhi-Shastra , authored by the Indian master Harivarman. This treatise possibly arised during the first half of the fourth century, reaching the modern days through it's Chinese translation only, by Kumarajiva.
It's main initial expounders in China were called the "Three Great Master of the Liang Dynasty": Seng-min , Chih-tsang e Fa-yun . The three of them in turn received instructions in this treatise from the monk Hui-tz'u . The three of them also possibly influenced the writing of the Sangyō Gisho, a sutra commentary supposedly authored by Prince Shōtoku.
*Rahder, Johannes. "Harivarman's Satyasiddhi-sastra". Philosophy East & West, V. 5 p.348.
*Takakusu, Junjiro. "The Essentials of buddhist philosophy". Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 2002, pg. 74
ISBN 8120815920
*Shih, Chang-Qing. "The two truths in chinese buddhism". Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 2004, pg 284
ISBN 8120820355
It's main initial expounders in China were called the "Three Great Master of the Liang Dynasty": Seng-min , Chih-tsang e Fa-yun . The three of them in turn received instructions in this treatise from the monk Hui-tz'u . The three of them also possibly influenced the writing of the Sangyō Gisho, a sutra commentary supposedly authored by Prince Shōtoku.
Sources
*Rahder, Johannes. "Harivarman's Satyasiddhi-sastra". Philosophy East & West, V. 5 p.348.
*Takakusu, Junjiro. "The Essentials of buddhist philosophy". Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 2002, pg. 74
ISBN 8120815920
*Shih, Chang-Qing. "The two truths in chinese buddhism". Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 2004, pg 284
ISBN 8120820355
Sanlun
Sanlun or literally Three Treatise School was a school of Buddhism based upon the Indian Madhyamaka tradition, founded by Nagarjuna. The name derives from the fact that three principal Madhyamikan texts by Nagarjuna and Aryadeva were translated by Kumarajiva to form the basis for the tradition. The three texts are: , The Treatise on the Twelve Gates , and The One-Hundred-Verse Treatise . Jizang is traditionally the founder of the school.
In 625, the Korean monk Ekan brought the Sanlun school to Japan, where it was known as Sanron. The Sanron sect held that all phenomena are unreal and exist only relatively to one another.
The Three Treatise School basically says that nothing is real. For example, a blind monk can see a fly in his begging bowl without the fly actually existing. Furthermore, since nothing is real, there can be neither affirmation or negation of any truths. So nothing is right or wrong. Everything is beyond all predication.
They identify three kinds of people who object to their beliefs. One group, the Abhidharmists objected that the world has physical substance.
In 625, the Korean monk Ekan brought the Sanlun school to Japan, where it was known as Sanron. The Sanron sect held that all phenomena are unreal and exist only relatively to one another.
The Three Treatise School basically says that nothing is real. For example, a blind monk can see a fly in his begging bowl without the fly actually existing. Furthermore, since nothing is real, there can be neither affirmation or negation of any truths. So nothing is right or wrong. Everything is beyond all predication.
They identify three kinds of people who object to their beliefs. One group, the Abhidharmists objected that the world has physical substance.
Mind monkey
Mind monkey or Monkey mind, from ''xinyuan'' and ''shin'en'' 心猿 , is a Buddhist term meaning "unsettled; restless; capricious; whimsical; fanciful; inconstant; confused; indecisive; uncontrollable". In addition to Buddhist writings, including Chan or Zen, Consciousness-only, Pure Land, and Shingon, this "mind-monkey" psychological metaphor was adopted in Daoism, Neo-Confucianism, poetry, drama, and literature. "Mind-monkey" occurs in two reversible four-character idioms with ''yima'' or ''iba'' 意馬 , most frequently used in Chinese ''xinyuanyima'' 心猿意馬 and Japanese ''ibashin'en'' 意馬心猿. The "Monkey King" Sun Wukong in the ''Journey to the West'' personifies the mind-monkey. Note that much of the following summarizes Carr .
"Mind-monkey" 心猿 is an exemplary animal metaphor. Some figures of speech are cross-linguistically common, verging upon linguistic universals; many languages use "monkey" or "ape" words to mean "mimic", for instance, Italian "to mock; to mimic" < "monkey; ape", Japanese ''sarumane'' 猿真似 "copycat; superficial imitation", and English ''monkey see, monkey do'' or ''''). Other animal metaphors have culture-specific meanings; compare English '''' "cowardly; timid'; easily frightened" and Chinese ''jixin'' 雞心 "heart-shaped; cordate".
The four elements of Chinese ''xinyuanyima'' or Japanese ''shin'en'iba'' are ''xin'' or ''shin'' 心 "heart; mind", ''yi'' or ''i'' 意 "thought", ''yuan'' or ''en'' 猿 "monkey", and ''ma'' or ''ba'' 馬 "horse"'.
The psychological components of the "mind-monkey will-horse" metaphor are Chinese ''xin'' or Sino-Japanese ''shin'' or ''kokoro'' "heart; mind; feelings, affections; center" and ''yi'' or ''i'' 'thought, idea; opinion, sentiment; will, wish; meaning'. This Chinese character 心 was graphically simplified from an original pictogram of a heart, and 意 "thought; think" is an ideogram combining 心 under ''yin'' "sound; tone; voice" denoting "sound in the mind; thought; idea".
In Chinese Buddhism and Japanese Buddhism, ''xin''/''shin'' 心 "heart; mind" generally translates Sanskrit '''' "the mind; state of mind; consciousness" and ''yi''/''i'' 意 translates Sanskrit '''' "the mental organ; deliberation". Some Buddhist authors have used 心 and 意 interchangeably for "mind; cognition; thought". Compare these ''Digital Dictionary of Buddhism'' glosses
*心 "Spirit, motive, sense. The mind as the seat of intelligence, mentality, idea. … Thought, intellect, feeling; "
*意 "Thought, intellect; ; the mind; ".
For example, take the Buddhist word Chinese ''xin-yi-shi'' or Japanese ''shin-i-shiki'' 心意識 that compounds three near-synonyms. Abhidharma theory uses this word as a general term for "mind; mentality", but Yogacara theory of Eight Consciousnesses distinguishes ''xin''/''shin'' 心 "store consciousness", ''yi''/''i'' 意 "''manas'' consciousness", and ''shi''/''shiki'' 識 "six object-contingent consciousnesses".
''Xinyuanyima'' 心猿意馬 "distracted; indecisive; restless" is comparable with some other Chinese collocations.
*''xinmanyizu'' 心滿意足 "perfectly content; fully satisfied"
*''xinhuiyilan'' 心灰意懶 "disheartened; discouraged; hopeless"
*''xinhuangyiluan'' 心慌意亂 "alarmed and hysterical; perturbed"
*''xinfanyiluan'' 心煩意亂 "terribly upset; confused and worried"
The animal components of the "mind-monkey will-horse" metaphor are Chinese ''yuan'' or Japanese ''en'' "gibbon; monkey; ape" and ''ma'' or ''ba'' "horse".
Chinese ''yuan'' 猿 originally meant the "Agile Gibbon, Black-handed Gibbon, ''Hylobates agilis''" but now generally means "ape; monkey" . Robert van Gulik concludes that until about the fourteenth century, ''yuan'' designated the gibbon, but due to extensive deforestation, its habitat shrank to remote southern mountains; from then on, "the majority of Chinese writers knowing about the gibbon only by hearsay, they began to confuse him with the macaque or other Cynopithecoids." Other common Chinese "monkey" names include ''feifei'' 狒狒 "Hamadryas baboon, ''Papio hamadryas''", ''hou'' "monkey; ape", and ''mihou'' 獼猴 or ''husun'' 猢猻 "rhesus macaque, rhesus monkey, ''Macaca mulatta''", Victor H. Mair reconstructs Old Sinitic *''mug-gug'', which "probably ultimately derives from the same African word as English 'macaque'" and is reminiscent of Sanskrit "mara?āsana " . These "monkey; ape" characters combine the "dog " with different phonetic elements, such as the ''yuan'' phonetic in ''yuan'' 猿.
In Chinese mythology, ''yuan'' "gibbons" were supposedly long-lived because they could ''yinqi'' 引氣 "absorb life-force", which is a '''' 導引 "Daoist gymnastic technique". Chinese classic texts mentioned "monkey leaping" and "monkey bowing" yoga . One of the 2nd-century BCE Mawangdui Silk Texts depicts 28 Daoist gymnastic exercises, many of which are named after animals, including number 22 ''muhou'' "macaque". In the present day, ''houquan'' 猴拳 "Monkey Kung Fu" is a Chinese martial arts style and ''xinyuanyima'' "mind-monkey will-horse" is a Daoist breath meditation technique.
When one breathes in and out, one's concentration causes the generative force to rise and fall thus slowly turning the wheel of the law. Count from one to ten and then from ten to one hundred breaths with the heart following the counting to prevent it from wandering outside. When the heart and breathing are in unison, this is called ''locking up the monkey heart'' and ''tying up the running horse of intellect''.
The Japanese kanji 猿 is pronounced as Sino-Japanese ''en'' < ''yuan'' or native ''saru'' "monkey", especially the indigenous "Japanese Macaque, ''Macaca fuscata''". In Japanese Shinto tradition, the monkey deity Sarutahiko was a divine messenger. Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney contrasts how, "in earlier periods the dominant meaning of the monkey was that of mediator between deities and humans. Later in history, its meaning as a scapegoat became increasingly dominant."
Chinese ''ma'' 馬 "horse", which was the linguistic source for Sino-Japanese ''ba'' or ''ma'' 馬 "horse", originally referred to Przewalski's Horse and later the Mongolian horse, Ferghana horse, etc. Horses were considered divine animals in both China and Japan. For the Chinese, Edward H. Schafer says,
He was invested with sanctity by ancient tradition, endowed with prodigious qualities, and visibly stamped with the marks of his divine origin. A revered myth proclaimed him a relative of the dragon, akin to the mysterious powers of water. Indeed, all wonderful horses, such as the steed of the pious Hsüan-tsang which, in later legend , carried the sacred scriptures from India, were avatars of dragons, and in antiquity the tallest horses owned by the Chinese were called simply "dragons."
For the Japanese, the ancient Shinto practice of offering ''shinme'' 神馬 "sacred horses" to shrines has evolved into the modern donation of symbolic ''Shinto '' 絵馬 "votive tablets"'.
Besides the "mind-monkey idea-horse" metaphor, monkeys and horses have further associations. In Chinese astrology, ''wu'' "" and ''shen'' "" are the 7th and 9th of the 12 zodiacal animals. In Chinese animal mythology, monkeys supposedly bring good health to horses. The ''Bencao Gangmu'' records the "custom of keeping a female monkey in the horse's stable to ward off sickness ".
This section summarizes Chinese and Japanese developments of ''xinyuan'' or ''shin'en'' 心猿 "mind-monkey" and ''yima'' or ''iba'' 意馬 "idea-horse" collocations and their synonyms. The earliest known textual usages are presented chronologically.
Chinese authors coined "mind monkey" expressions from the through the Song Dynasty . In modern usage, some terms are considered Classical Chinese, but others like ''xinyuanyima'' "mind-monkey will-horse" are Standard Mandarin. Unless otherwise noted, translations are by Carr .
The ca. 406 ''Weimojie suoshuo jing'' 維摩詰所說經 was Kumarajiva's groundbreaking CE Chinese translation of the ''Vimalakirti Sutra''. It introduced "mind-monkey" in the simile ''xin ru yuanhou'' 心如猨猴 "heart/mind like a monkey/ape" . "Since the mind of one difficult to convert is like an ape, govern his mind by using certain methods and it can then be broken in" . Carr suggests the subsequent line about ''xiang ma'' 象馬 "elephants and horses" having unruly natures could have affected the later ''yima'' "idea-horse" term.
The ''Mengyu chanhui shi'' 蒙預懺悔詩 "Poem Repenting Foolish Pleasure" is attributed to Emperor Jianwen of Liang , who was a renowned author. This poem has the oldest known usage of ''xinyuan'' "mind-monkey", but with ''aima'' 愛馬 "love-horse" instead of ''yima'' 意馬 "idea-horse". "The three disciplines/cultivations expel the love-horse, and the six recollections/ideas still the mind-monkey." This Buddhistic poem has numerous graphic variants, including these ''sanxun'' 三循 "three disciplines" for ''sanxiu'' 三修 "three cultivations" and ''liuyi'' 六意 "six ideas" for ''liunian'' 六念 "six recollections" . Based on these contextual graphic inconsistencies, Carr suggests the possibility that a scribe transposed Jianwen's original ''yima'' 意馬 "idea-horse" as ''aima'' 愛馬 "love-horse".
The ''Daci'ensi sanzang fashizhuan'' 大慈恩寺三藏法師傳 "Biography of the Tripitaka Dharma Master of the Temple of Great Compassionate Blessings" is a biography of Xuanzang written by his disciple Kuiji . This record of the Consciousness-Only Buddhism, has a memorial dated 657 CE that parallels ''yima'' "idea-/will-horse" with ''qingyuan'' 情猿 "emotion-/feeling-monkey": "Now if you wish to entrust your thoughts to the Chan sect, you must make your mind as pure as still water, control your emotion-monkey's indolence and fidgeting, and restrain your idea-horse's haste and galloping."
The Tang Dynasty poet Xu Hun 許渾 wrote the first known parallel between "mind-monkey" and "idea-horse." His ''Zengti Du yinju'' 贈題杜隱居 "Poem Written for Sir Du the Recluse" says: "Nature exhausts the mind-monkey's hiding, spirit disperses the idea-horse's moving/stopping. Guests who come ought to know this: both self and world are unfeeling."
The common ''xinyuanyima'' "mind-monkey will-horse" phrase dates back to a ''bianwen'' 變文 "Vernacular Chinese transformation text" narrative version of the ''Weimojie suoshuo jing'' that was discovered in the Mogao Caves. This ''jiangjingwen'' 講經文 "sutra lecture text" dated 947 CE says: "Within the indeterminable and unfathomable depths, the mind-monkey and idea-horse cease their craziness."
The 1075 CE ''Wuzhen pian'', which is a Daoist classic on ''Neidan''-style internal alchemy, used ''xinyuan'' "mind-monkey" without "horse".
Thoroughly understanding the mind-monkey, the machinations in the heart, by three thousand achievements one becomes a peer of heaven. There naturally is a crucible to cook the dragon and tiger; Why is it necessary to support a household and be attached to spouse and children?
Cleary glosses ''xinyuan'' as "the unruly mind, jumping from one object to another."
The Song Dynasty poet Zhu Yi 朱翌 reversed the Tang lyrical ''xinyuanyima'' expression into ''yimaxinyuan'' "will-horse mind-monkey". His ''Shuixuanshi'' 睡軒詩 "Sleeping Porch Poem" says: "Haste is useless with the idea-horse and mind-monkey, so take off your baggage someplace deep within dreamland."
The ca. 1200 ''Nan Tang shu'' 南唐書 "History of the Southern Tang" used the simile ''yi ru ma xin ru nao'' 意如馬心如猱 "ideas like a horse and mind like a gibbon/monkey". Congshan 從善 , seventh son of the figurehead Emperor Yuanzong of Southern Tang, confesses: "Long ago in my youth, my ideas were like a horse and my mind was like a monkey. I was indolent with happiness and enjoyed lust, was pleased with rewards and forgot toil."
The ca. 1590 ''Xiyouji'' 西遊記 "''Journey to the West''" popularized "mind-monkey" more than any other text. This famous Chinese novel centers upon the pilgrimage of Xuanzang to India, and frequently uses ''xinyuan'' and ''yima'' expressions . Many are found in the couplet titles of chapters, for instance, 30 "The evil demon attacks the true Dharma; The Horse of the Will recalls the Monkey of the Mind". The preeminent translator Anthony C. Yu describes controlling the mind-monkey and will-horse as "a theme central to the entire narrative and which receives repeated and varied developments." Chapter 7 has this exemplary poem:
A monkey's transformed body weds the human mind. Mind is a monkey – this, the truth profound. The Great Sage , Equal to Heaven, is no idle thought. For how could the post of justly show his gifts? The Horse works with the Monkey – and this means both Mind and Will, Must firmly be harnessed and not ruled without. All things return to Nirvāna, taking this one course: In union with Tathāgata to live beneath twin trees.
Many ''Xiyouji'' scholars allegorically interpret ''xinyuan'' "heart-/mind-monkey" as the protagonist monkey-man Sun Wukong and ''yima'' "idea-/will-horse" as the dragon prince White Horse that enters the story in chapter 15. There are long-standing scholarly disagreements over whether Sun Wukong evolved from Hanuman, the monkey hero in the ''Ramayana''. It is "imagistically proper" for Sun to be a monkey, says Mair , because "Zen thought symbolizes the restless and unbridled mind of man as an "ape/monkey-mind" 心猿."
Japanese Buddhist monks not only imported Sino-Japanese vocabulary such as ''shin'en'' < ''xinyuan'' 心猿 "mind-monkey" and ''iba'' < ''yima'' 意馬 "idea-horse", but also invented analogous Japanese words like ''i'en'' 意猿 "idea-monkey" and ''shinba'' 心馬 "mind-horse". Unless otherwise noted, translations are by Carr . The earliest known usages of relevant "mind-monkey" terminology are shown in the table below.
During the Heian period , the Chinese "mind-monkey" and "idea-horse" were paraphrased as ''i'en'' 意猿 "idea-monkey" and ''shinba'' 心馬 "mind-horse". The 797 CE ''Sangō Shiiki'' 三教指帰 "Indications of the Three teachings " was written by Kūkai, who founded esoteric Shingon Buddhism. Two passages introduced Japanese "mind-monkey" and "will-horse" neologisms. One used ''i'en'' 意猿 "idea/will monkey" with the common word ''nouma'' 野馬 "wild horse": "The four great difficulties overexcite the wild horse's fast gallop, the twenty-six contributory causes mislead the plans of the idea-monkey." Another passage used ''shinba'' 心馬 "heart/mind horse" and ''isha'' 意車 "idea-chariot": "Whip the mind-horse to gallop off in the eight directions, grease the idea chariot and gambol within the nine heavens."
During the Kamakura period , Pure Land Buddhism introduced the Sino-Japanese terms ''shin'en'' 心猿 "mind-monkey" and ''iba'' 意馬 "idea-horse", and an early travelogue popularized them. The ''Genkyū hōgo'' 元久法語 "Genkyū era Buddhist Sermons" is a collection of writings by Hōnen, the founder of the . His ca. 1205 "Tozanjō 登山状 "Mountain Climbing Description" uses ''iba'' with ''shin'en'': "When you wish to enter the gate of determined goodness, then your idea-horse runs wild within the bounds of the six sense objects . When you wish to enter the gate of scattered goodness, then your mind-monkey gambols and jumps across the branches of the ten evil deeds ." The 1223 ''Kaidōki'' 海道記 "Record of Coast Road Travels" was a travelogue of the Tōkaidō from Kyoto to . It used ''shinsen'' 心船 "heart/mind boat" meaning "imaginary journey" with ''iba'' 意馬 "idea/will horse" and wrote ''arasaru'' 荒猿 "wild monkey" for ''arasu'' 荒す "treat roughly/wildly": "I rowed the mind-boat for make-believe. As yet, I neither poled across myriad leagues of waves on the Coast Road, nor roughly rode the idea-horse to urge it on through clouds of the distant mountain barrier."
During the early Edo period , the four-character Chinese collocations ''yimashinen'' 意馬心猿 and ''shinenyima'' 心猿意馬 were introduced into Japanese. The 1675 ''Man'an kana hōgo'' 卍庵仮名法語, which was a vernacular collection of Zen sermons, first used ''shin'en'iba'' 意馬心猿. "For this reason, even if you reside somewhere with remote mountain streams and desolate tranquillity, and sit in silent contemplation, you will only be passing idle time because you are isolated from the road of the mind-monkey and idea-horse." The 1699 Kabuki play ''Wakoku gosuiten'' 和国五翠殿 "Japan's Five Green Palaces" repeatedly used ''ibashin'en''. For instance, the first act described two prisoners tied to a tree: "They are the idea-horse and mind-monkey themselves. So if this pine tree is the pole of Absolute Reality, then these two prisoners are a greedy monkey - no, a cat - and a horse running wild; and they are just like the idea-horse and mind-monkey."
Mind monkey and monkey mind both occur in English usage, originally as translations of ''xinyuan'' or ''shin'en'' and later as culturally-independent images. Michael Carr concludes,
''Xinyuan-yima'' 心猿意馬 "monkey of the heart/mind and horse of the ideas/will" has been a successful metaphor. What began 1500 years ago as a Buddhist import evolved into a standard Chinese and Japanese literary phrase. Rosenthal says a proverb's success "'depends on certain imponderables," particularly rhythm and phrasing. Of the two animals in this metaphor, the "monkey" phrase was stronger than the "horse" because ''xinyuan'' "mind-monkey" was occasionally used alone and it had more viable variants . The "mental-monkey" choice of words aptly reflects restlessness, curiosity, and mimicry associated with this animal. Dudbridge explains how "the random, uncontrollable movements of the monkey symbolise the waywardness of the native human mind before it achieves a composure which only Buddhist discipline can effect."
English translations of Chinese ''xinyuan'' or Japanese ''shin'en'' commonly include "mind monkey", "monkey mind", and "monkey of the mind".
This first list compares how 11 bilingual Chinese dictionaries translate ''xinyuanyima'' 心猿意馬 and ''yimaxinyuan'' 意馬心猿.
*【意馬心猿】 his will is like a horse's, and his heart like an ape's; inconstant and strong
*【心猿意馬】 gibbon heart and horse ideas, – unsettled and wandering
*【心猿意馬】 irresolute; vacillating; fluctuating ... Inconstant; fickle in the mind
*【意馬心猿】 Unsettled in mind; fluctuating; wavering in purpose
*【意馬心猿】The intents of the mind and heart are like the horse and ape – very difficult to bring under control; undecided
*【心猿意馬】 Restless and unsettled
*【心猿意馬】 the intents of the mind and heart are like the horse and the ape – very difficult to bring under control; undecided
*【心猿意馬】 cannot make up one's mind; indecision; procrastination
*【心猿意馬】 prone to outside attractions, temptations; in a restless and jumpy mood
*【心猿意馬】 restless and whimsical; fanciful and fickle; capricious
*【心猿意馬】 in a restless and jumpy mood / capricious
*【心猿意馬】 restless and whimsical; fanciful and fickle; capricious; when one meant gibbon, he thinks of a horse
*【心猿意馬】 ① capricious; restless ② indecisive
*【意馬心猿】 indecisive; wavering
Six of these 11 Chinese-English dictionaries enter only the common ''xinyuanyima'' "mind-monkey idea-horse," 2 only the reverse ''yimaxinyuan'', and 3 enter both. Three translation equivalents give English "ape" rather than "gibbon" or "monkey" for ''yuan'' 猿, and "ape" sounds metaphorically stronger than "monkey." Note how several of these dictionaries have identical translations.
This second list compares how 9 bilingual Japanese dictionaries translate ''ibashin'en'' 意馬心猿, none enters ''shin'en'iba'' 心猿意馬.
*【意馬心猿】 Clamorous demands of passion
*【意馬心猿】 overmastering passion
*【意馬心猿】Passions hard of control; uncontrollable passions
*【意馬心猿】Clamorous demands of passion; passions
*【意馬心猿】 clamorous demands of passion; passions; wild horses of passions and flighty monkeys of desires
*【意馬心猿】 uncontrollable passions
*【意馬心猿】 clamorous demands of passion; passions
*【意馬心猿】 passions
*【意馬心猿】 the clamorous demands of passion; passions
All 9 Japanese-English dictionaries mention "passion" or "passions." Note how Saito's "uncontrollable passions" first appeared in 1930 and was copied into 6 other dictionaries. The 5 editions of Kenkyūsha's New Japanese-English Dictionary illustrate lexicographical modifications. Editors copied the "clamorous demands of passion" phrase from the 1st edition into all the subsequent versions. The 2nd first added "uncontrollable" to "passions," which was copied in later editions. The 3rd edition included a literal translation "wild horses of passions and flighty monkeys of desires", but this was omitted from the 4th and 5th .
Examples of "mind monkey" are predictably common in Chinese popular culture. For instance, ''Sam yuen yi ma'' 心猿意馬 – the pronunciation of ''Xinyuanyima'' "mind-monkey will-horse" – was a 1999 Hong Kong movie by Stanley Kwan. However, examples of "mind monkey" are surprisingly widespread in modern English culture. For instance, there are blogs named "Mind Monkey!", "Mind of the Monkey", "Monkey Mind", and "No monkey mind".
In English-language publishing, fewer books are titled with "mind monkey", such as ''Master the Mind Monkey'' , than "monkey mind". "Taming" is common among ''Taming the Monkey Mind'' , ''Taming the Monkey Mind; A Guide to Pure Land Practice'' , and ''Taming Our Monkey Mind: Insight, Detachment, Identity'' . Other examples of book titles include ''Samba and the Monkey Mind'' , ''Meeting the Monkey Halfway'' , ''Your Monkey Mind Connection'' , and ''Still the Monkey'' .
The originally Buddhist "mind monkey" metaphor is also known in popular English-language music. "Mad Melancholy Monkey Mind" is a band. There are albums entitled "Mind Monkey" , "Monkey Mind" , and "Monkey Mind Control" . Song titles include "The Monkey on the Mind" and "Monkey Mind" .
Linguistic and cultural background
"Mind-monkey" 心猿 is an exemplary animal metaphor. Some figures of speech are cross-linguistically common, verging upon linguistic universals; many languages use "monkey" or "ape" words to mean "mimic", for instance, Italian "to mock; to mimic" < "monkey; ape", Japanese ''sarumane'' 猿真似 "copycat; superficial imitation", and English ''monkey see, monkey do'' or ''''). Other animal metaphors have culture-specific meanings; compare English '''' "cowardly; timid'; easily frightened" and Chinese ''jixin'' 雞心 "heart-shaped; cordate".
The four elements of Chinese ''xinyuanyima'' or Japanese ''shin'en'iba'' are ''xin'' or ''shin'' 心 "heart; mind", ''yi'' or ''i'' 意 "thought", ''yuan'' or ''en'' 猿 "monkey", and ''ma'' or ''ba'' 馬 "horse"'.
The 心 "heart; mind" and 意 "idea; will"
The psychological components of the "mind-monkey will-horse" metaphor are Chinese ''xin'' or Sino-Japanese ''shin'' or ''kokoro'' "heart; mind; feelings, affections; center" and ''yi'' or ''i'' 'thought, idea; opinion, sentiment; will, wish; meaning'. This Chinese character 心 was graphically simplified from an original pictogram of a heart, and 意 "thought; think" is an ideogram combining 心 under ''yin'' "sound; tone; voice" denoting "sound in the mind; thought; idea".
In Chinese Buddhism and Japanese Buddhism, ''xin''/''shin'' 心 "heart; mind" generally translates Sanskrit '''' "the mind; state of mind; consciousness" and ''yi''/''i'' 意 translates Sanskrit '''' "the mental organ; deliberation". Some Buddhist authors have used 心 and 意 interchangeably for "mind; cognition; thought". Compare these ''Digital Dictionary of Buddhism'' glosses
*心 "Spirit, motive, sense. The mind as the seat of intelligence, mentality, idea. … Thought, intellect, feeling; "
*意 "Thought, intellect; ; the mind; ".
For example, take the Buddhist word Chinese ''xin-yi-shi'' or Japanese ''shin-i-shiki'' 心意識 that compounds three near-synonyms. Abhidharma theory uses this word as a general term for "mind; mentality", but Yogacara theory of Eight Consciousnesses distinguishes ''xin''/''shin'' 心 "store consciousness", ''yi''/''i'' 意 "''manas'' consciousness", and ''shi''/''shiki'' 識 "six object-contingent consciousnesses".
''Xinyuanyima'' 心猿意馬 "distracted; indecisive; restless" is comparable with some other Chinese collocations.
*''xinmanyizu'' 心滿意足 "perfectly content; fully satisfied"
*''xinhuiyilan'' 心灰意懶 "disheartened; discouraged; hopeless"
*''xinhuangyiluan'' 心慌意亂 "alarmed and hysterical; perturbed"
*''xinfanyiluan'' 心煩意亂 "terribly upset; confused and worried"
The 猿 "monkey" and 馬 "horse"
The animal components of the "mind-monkey will-horse" metaphor are Chinese ''yuan'' or Japanese ''en'' "gibbon; monkey; ape" and ''ma'' or ''ba'' "horse".
Chinese ''yuan'' 猿 originally meant the "Agile Gibbon, Black-handed Gibbon, ''Hylobates agilis''" but now generally means "ape; monkey" . Robert van Gulik concludes that until about the fourteenth century, ''yuan'' designated the gibbon, but due to extensive deforestation, its habitat shrank to remote southern mountains; from then on, "the majority of Chinese writers knowing about the gibbon only by hearsay, they began to confuse him with the macaque or other Cynopithecoids." Other common Chinese "monkey" names include ''feifei'' 狒狒 "Hamadryas baboon, ''Papio hamadryas''", ''hou'' "monkey; ape", and ''mihou'' 獼猴 or ''husun'' 猢猻 "rhesus macaque, rhesus monkey, ''Macaca mulatta''", Victor H. Mair reconstructs Old Sinitic *''mug-gug'', which "probably ultimately derives from the same African word as English 'macaque'" and is reminiscent of Sanskrit "mara?āsana " . These "monkey; ape" characters combine the "dog " with different phonetic elements, such as the ''yuan'' phonetic in ''yuan'' 猿.
In Chinese mythology, ''yuan'' "gibbons" were supposedly long-lived because they could ''yinqi'' 引氣 "absorb life-force", which is a '''' 導引 "Daoist gymnastic technique". Chinese classic texts mentioned "monkey leaping" and "monkey bowing" yoga . One of the 2nd-century BCE Mawangdui Silk Texts depicts 28 Daoist gymnastic exercises, many of which are named after animals, including number 22 ''muhou'' "macaque". In the present day, ''houquan'' 猴拳 "Monkey Kung Fu" is a Chinese martial arts style and ''xinyuanyima'' "mind-monkey will-horse" is a Daoist breath meditation technique.
When one breathes in and out, one's concentration causes the generative force to rise and fall thus slowly turning the wheel of the law. Count from one to ten and then from ten to one hundred breaths with the heart following the counting to prevent it from wandering outside. When the heart and breathing are in unison, this is called ''locking up the monkey heart'' and ''tying up the running horse of intellect''.
The Japanese kanji 猿 is pronounced as Sino-Japanese ''en'' < ''yuan'' or native ''saru'' "monkey", especially the indigenous "Japanese Macaque, ''Macaca fuscata''". In Japanese Shinto tradition, the monkey deity Sarutahiko was a divine messenger. Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney contrasts how, "in earlier periods the dominant meaning of the monkey was that of mediator between deities and humans. Later in history, its meaning as a scapegoat became increasingly dominant."
Chinese ''ma'' 馬 "horse", which was the linguistic source for Sino-Japanese ''ba'' or ''ma'' 馬 "horse", originally referred to Przewalski's Horse and later the Mongolian horse, Ferghana horse, etc. Horses were considered divine animals in both China and Japan. For the Chinese, Edward H. Schafer says,
He was invested with sanctity by ancient tradition, endowed with prodigious qualities, and visibly stamped with the marks of his divine origin. A revered myth proclaimed him a relative of the dragon, akin to the mysterious powers of water. Indeed, all wonderful horses, such as the steed of the pious Hsüan-tsang which, in later legend , carried the sacred scriptures from India, were avatars of dragons, and in antiquity the tallest horses owned by the Chinese were called simply "dragons."
For the Japanese, the ancient Shinto practice of offering ''shinme'' 神馬 "sacred horses" to shrines has evolved into the modern donation of symbolic ''Shinto '' 絵馬 "votive tablets"'.
Besides the "mind-monkey idea-horse" metaphor, monkeys and horses have further associations. In Chinese astrology, ''wu'' "" and ''shen'' "" are the 7th and 9th of the 12 zodiacal animals. In Chinese animal mythology, monkeys supposedly bring good health to horses. The ''Bencao Gangmu'' records the "custom of keeping a female monkey in the horse's stable to ward off sickness ".
Early literary history of "mind-monkeys"
This section summarizes Chinese and Japanese developments of ''xinyuan'' or ''shin'en'' 心猿 "mind-monkey" and ''yima'' or ''iba'' 意馬 "idea-horse" collocations and their synonyms. The earliest known textual usages are presented chronologically.
Chinese "mind monkey" collocations
Chinese authors coined "mind monkey" expressions from the through the Song Dynasty . In modern usage, some terms are considered Classical Chinese, but others like ''xinyuanyima'' "mind-monkey will-horse" are Standard Mandarin. Unless otherwise noted, translations are by Carr .
The ca. 406 ''Weimojie suoshuo jing'' 維摩詰所說經 was Kumarajiva's groundbreaking CE Chinese translation of the ''Vimalakirti Sutra''. It introduced "mind-monkey" in the simile ''xin ru yuanhou'' 心如猨猴 "heart/mind like a monkey/ape" . "Since the mind of one difficult to convert is like an ape, govern his mind by using certain methods and it can then be broken in" . Carr suggests the subsequent line about ''xiang ma'' 象馬 "elephants and horses" having unruly natures could have affected the later ''yima'' "idea-horse" term.
The ''Mengyu chanhui shi'' 蒙預懺悔詩 "Poem Repenting Foolish Pleasure" is attributed to Emperor Jianwen of Liang , who was a renowned author. This poem has the oldest known usage of ''xinyuan'' "mind-monkey", but with ''aima'' 愛馬 "love-horse" instead of ''yima'' 意馬 "idea-horse". "The three disciplines/cultivations expel the love-horse, and the six recollections/ideas still the mind-monkey." This Buddhistic poem has numerous graphic variants, including these ''sanxun'' 三循 "three disciplines" for ''sanxiu'' 三修 "three cultivations" and ''liuyi'' 六意 "six ideas" for ''liunian'' 六念 "six recollections" . Based on these contextual graphic inconsistencies, Carr suggests the possibility that a scribe transposed Jianwen's original ''yima'' 意馬 "idea-horse" as ''aima'' 愛馬 "love-horse".
The ''Daci'ensi sanzang fashizhuan'' 大慈恩寺三藏法師傳 "Biography of the Tripitaka Dharma Master of the Temple of Great Compassionate Blessings" is a biography of Xuanzang written by his disciple Kuiji . This record of the Consciousness-Only Buddhism, has a memorial dated 657 CE that parallels ''yima'' "idea-/will-horse" with ''qingyuan'' 情猿 "emotion-/feeling-monkey": "Now if you wish to entrust your thoughts to the Chan sect, you must make your mind as pure as still water, control your emotion-monkey's indolence and fidgeting, and restrain your idea-horse's haste and galloping."
The Tang Dynasty poet Xu Hun 許渾 wrote the first known parallel between "mind-monkey" and "idea-horse." His ''Zengti Du yinju'' 贈題杜隱居 "Poem Written for Sir Du the Recluse" says: "Nature exhausts the mind-monkey's hiding, spirit disperses the idea-horse's moving/stopping. Guests who come ought to know this: both self and world are unfeeling."
The common ''xinyuanyima'' "mind-monkey will-horse" phrase dates back to a ''bianwen'' 變文 "Vernacular Chinese transformation text" narrative version of the ''Weimojie suoshuo jing'' that was discovered in the Mogao Caves. This ''jiangjingwen'' 講經文 "sutra lecture text" dated 947 CE says: "Within the indeterminable and unfathomable depths, the mind-monkey and idea-horse cease their craziness."
The 1075 CE ''Wuzhen pian'', which is a Daoist classic on ''Neidan''-style internal alchemy, used ''xinyuan'' "mind-monkey" without "horse".
Thoroughly understanding the mind-monkey, the machinations in the heart, by three thousand achievements one becomes a peer of heaven. There naturally is a crucible to cook the dragon and tiger; Why is it necessary to support a household and be attached to spouse and children?
Cleary glosses ''xinyuan'' as "the unruly mind, jumping from one object to another."
The Song Dynasty poet Zhu Yi 朱翌 reversed the Tang lyrical ''xinyuanyima'' expression into ''yimaxinyuan'' "will-horse mind-monkey". His ''Shuixuanshi'' 睡軒詩 "Sleeping Porch Poem" says: "Haste is useless with the idea-horse and mind-monkey, so take off your baggage someplace deep within dreamland."
The ca. 1200 ''Nan Tang shu'' 南唐書 "History of the Southern Tang" used the simile ''yi ru ma xin ru nao'' 意如馬心如猱 "ideas like a horse and mind like a gibbon/monkey". Congshan 從善 , seventh son of the figurehead Emperor Yuanzong of Southern Tang, confesses: "Long ago in my youth, my ideas were like a horse and my mind was like a monkey. I was indolent with happiness and enjoyed lust, was pleased with rewards and forgot toil."
The ca. 1590 ''Xiyouji'' 西遊記 "''Journey to the West''" popularized "mind-monkey" more than any other text. This famous Chinese novel centers upon the pilgrimage of Xuanzang to India, and frequently uses ''xinyuan'' and ''yima'' expressions . Many are found in the couplet titles of chapters, for instance, 30 "The evil demon attacks the true Dharma; The Horse of the Will recalls the Monkey of the Mind". The preeminent translator Anthony C. Yu describes controlling the mind-monkey and will-horse as "a theme central to the entire narrative and which receives repeated and varied developments." Chapter 7 has this exemplary poem:
A monkey's transformed body weds the human mind. Mind is a monkey – this, the truth profound. The Great Sage , Equal to Heaven, is no idle thought. For how could the post of justly show his gifts? The Horse works with the Monkey – and this means both Mind and Will, Must firmly be harnessed and not ruled without. All things return to Nirvāna, taking this one course: In union with Tathāgata to live beneath twin trees.
Many ''Xiyouji'' scholars allegorically interpret ''xinyuan'' "heart-/mind-monkey" as the protagonist monkey-man Sun Wukong and ''yima'' "idea-/will-horse" as the dragon prince White Horse that enters the story in chapter 15. There are long-standing scholarly disagreements over whether Sun Wukong evolved from Hanuman, the monkey hero in the ''Ramayana''. It is "imagistically proper" for Sun to be a monkey, says Mair , because "Zen thought symbolizes the restless and unbridled mind of man as an "ape/monkey-mind" 心猿."
Japanese "mind-monkey" collocations
Japanese Buddhist monks not only imported Sino-Japanese vocabulary such as ''shin'en'' < ''xinyuan'' 心猿 "mind-monkey" and ''iba'' < ''yima'' 意馬 "idea-horse", but also invented analogous Japanese words like ''i'en'' 意猿 "idea-monkey" and ''shinba'' 心馬 "mind-horse". Unless otherwise noted, translations are by Carr . The earliest known usages of relevant "mind-monkey" terminology are shown in the table below.
During the Heian period , the Chinese "mind-monkey" and "idea-horse" were paraphrased as ''i'en'' 意猿 "idea-monkey" and ''shinba'' 心馬 "mind-horse". The 797 CE ''Sangō Shiiki'' 三教指帰 "Indications of the Three teachings " was written by Kūkai, who founded esoteric Shingon Buddhism. Two passages introduced Japanese "mind-monkey" and "will-horse" neologisms. One used ''i'en'' 意猿 "idea/will monkey" with the common word ''nouma'' 野馬 "wild horse": "The four great difficulties overexcite the wild horse's fast gallop, the twenty-six contributory causes mislead the plans of the idea-monkey." Another passage used ''shinba'' 心馬 "heart/mind horse" and ''isha'' 意車 "idea-chariot": "Whip the mind-horse to gallop off in the eight directions, grease the idea chariot and gambol within the nine heavens."
During the Kamakura period , Pure Land Buddhism introduced the Sino-Japanese terms ''shin'en'' 心猿 "mind-monkey" and ''iba'' 意馬 "idea-horse", and an early travelogue popularized them. The ''Genkyū hōgo'' 元久法語 "Genkyū era Buddhist Sermons" is a collection of writings by Hōnen, the founder of the . His ca. 1205 "Tozanjō 登山状 "Mountain Climbing Description" uses ''iba'' with ''shin'en'': "When you wish to enter the gate of determined goodness, then your idea-horse runs wild within the bounds of the six sense objects . When you wish to enter the gate of scattered goodness, then your mind-monkey gambols and jumps across the branches of the ten evil deeds ." The 1223 ''Kaidōki'' 海道記 "Record of Coast Road Travels" was a travelogue of the Tōkaidō from Kyoto to . It used ''shinsen'' 心船 "heart/mind boat" meaning "imaginary journey" with ''iba'' 意馬 "idea/will horse" and wrote ''arasaru'' 荒猿 "wild monkey" for ''arasu'' 荒す "treat roughly/wildly": "I rowed the mind-boat for make-believe. As yet, I neither poled across myriad leagues of waves on the Coast Road, nor roughly rode the idea-horse to urge it on through clouds of the distant mountain barrier."
During the early Edo period , the four-character Chinese collocations ''yimashinen'' 意馬心猿 and ''shinenyima'' 心猿意馬 were introduced into Japanese. The 1675 ''Man'an kana hōgo'' 卍庵仮名法語, which was a vernacular collection of Zen sermons, first used ''shin'en'iba'' 意馬心猿. "For this reason, even if you reside somewhere with remote mountain streams and desolate tranquillity, and sit in silent contemplation, you will only be passing idle time because you are isolated from the road of the mind-monkey and idea-horse." The 1699 Kabuki play ''Wakoku gosuiten'' 和国五翠殿 "Japan's Five Green Palaces" repeatedly used ''ibashin'en''. For instance, the first act described two prisoners tied to a tree: "They are the idea-horse and mind-monkey themselves. So if this pine tree is the pole of Absolute Reality, then these two prisoners are a greedy monkey - no, a cat - and a horse running wild; and they are just like the idea-horse and mind-monkey."
"Mind-monkey" in English
Mind monkey and monkey mind both occur in English usage, originally as translations of ''xinyuan'' or ''shin'en'' and later as culturally-independent images. Michael Carr concludes,
''Xinyuan-yima'' 心猿意馬 "monkey of the heart/mind and horse of the ideas/will" has been a successful metaphor. What began 1500 years ago as a Buddhist import evolved into a standard Chinese and Japanese literary phrase. Rosenthal says a proverb's success "'depends on certain imponderables," particularly rhythm and phrasing. Of the two animals in this metaphor, the "monkey" phrase was stronger than the "horse" because ''xinyuan'' "mind-monkey" was occasionally used alone and it had more viable variants . The "mental-monkey" choice of words aptly reflects restlessness, curiosity, and mimicry associated with this animal. Dudbridge explains how "the random, uncontrollable movements of the monkey symbolise the waywardness of the native human mind before it achieves a composure which only Buddhist discipline can effect."
Translations
English translations of Chinese ''xinyuan'' or Japanese ''shin'en'' commonly include "mind monkey", "monkey mind", and "monkey of the mind".
This first list compares how 11 bilingual Chinese dictionaries translate ''xinyuanyima'' 心猿意馬 and ''yimaxinyuan'' 意馬心猿.
*【意馬心猿】 his will is like a horse's, and his heart like an ape's; inconstant and strong
*【心猿意馬】 gibbon heart and horse ideas, – unsettled and wandering
*【心猿意馬】 irresolute; vacillating; fluctuating ... Inconstant; fickle in the mind
*【意馬心猿】 Unsettled in mind; fluctuating; wavering in purpose
*【意馬心猿】The intents of the mind and heart are like the horse and ape – very difficult to bring under control; undecided
*【心猿意馬】 Restless and unsettled
*【心猿意馬】 the intents of the mind and heart are like the horse and the ape – very difficult to bring under control; undecided
*【心猿意馬】 cannot make up one's mind; indecision; procrastination
*【心猿意馬】 prone to outside attractions, temptations; in a restless and jumpy mood
*【心猿意馬】 restless and whimsical; fanciful and fickle; capricious
*【心猿意馬】 in a restless and jumpy mood / capricious
*【心猿意馬】 restless and whimsical; fanciful and fickle; capricious; when one meant gibbon, he thinks of a horse
*【心猿意馬】 ① capricious; restless ② indecisive
*【意馬心猿】 indecisive; wavering
Six of these 11 Chinese-English dictionaries enter only the common ''xinyuanyima'' "mind-monkey idea-horse," 2 only the reverse ''yimaxinyuan'', and 3 enter both. Three translation equivalents give English "ape" rather than "gibbon" or "monkey" for ''yuan'' 猿, and "ape" sounds metaphorically stronger than "monkey." Note how several of these dictionaries have identical translations.
This second list compares how 9 bilingual Japanese dictionaries translate ''ibashin'en'' 意馬心猿, none enters ''shin'en'iba'' 心猿意馬.
*【意馬心猿】 Clamorous demands of passion
*【意馬心猿】 overmastering passion
*【意馬心猿】Passions hard of control; uncontrollable passions
*【意馬心猿】Clamorous demands of passion; passions
*【意馬心猿】 clamorous demands of passion; passions; wild horses of passions and flighty monkeys of desires
*【意馬心猿】 uncontrollable passions
*【意馬心猿】 clamorous demands of passion; passions
*【意馬心猿】 passions
*【意馬心猿】 the clamorous demands of passion; passions
All 9 Japanese-English dictionaries mention "passion" or "passions." Note how Saito's "uncontrollable passions" first appeared in 1930 and was copied into 6 other dictionaries. The 5 editions of Kenkyūsha's New Japanese-English Dictionary illustrate lexicographical modifications. Editors copied the "clamorous demands of passion" phrase from the 1st edition into all the subsequent versions. The 2nd first added "uncontrollable" to "passions," which was copied in later editions. The 3rd edition included a literal translation "wild horses of passions and flighty monkeys of desires", but this was omitted from the 4th and 5th .
Popular culture
Examples of "mind monkey" are predictably common in Chinese popular culture. For instance, ''Sam yuen yi ma'' 心猿意馬 – the pronunciation of ''Xinyuanyima'' "mind-monkey will-horse" – was a 1999 Hong Kong movie by Stanley Kwan. However, examples of "mind monkey" are surprisingly widespread in modern English culture. For instance, there are blogs named "Mind Monkey!", "Mind of the Monkey", "Monkey Mind", and "No monkey mind".
In English-language publishing, fewer books are titled with "mind monkey", such as ''Master the Mind Monkey'' , than "monkey mind". "Taming" is common among ''Taming the Monkey Mind'' , ''Taming the Monkey Mind; A Guide to Pure Land Practice'' , and ''Taming Our Monkey Mind: Insight, Detachment, Identity'' . Other examples of book titles include ''Samba and the Monkey Mind'' , ''Meeting the Monkey Halfway'' , ''Your Monkey Mind Connection'' , and ''Still the Monkey'' .
The originally Buddhist "mind monkey" metaphor is also known in popular English-language music. "Mad Melancholy Monkey Mind" is a band. There are albums entitled "Mind Monkey" , "Monkey Mind" , and "Monkey Mind Control" . Song titles include "The Monkey on the Mind" and "Monkey Mind" .
Memoirs of Eminent Monks
Mahavibhasa
The Abhidharma '''''' ?āstra is an ancient Buddhist text.
is a meaning 'compendium', 'treatise' or simply 'explanation', derived from vi + , 'to speak' or 'to explain'. Evidence strongly indicates that there were originally many different texts, mainly commenting on the , but also commenting on other Abhidharma texts too. The relationship between all these texts is very complex, as there is mutual influence, and the texts underwent some development from initial inception to completion. The Taisho has three, however, which are compendiums on the J?ānaprasthāna, and its six legs: the , the and the .
Of these three, the is considered prominent. Its authorship is traditionally attributed to five hundred arhats, some 600 years after the of the . Its compilation, however, is attributed to a certain Katyāyāniputra. This date and authorship is based on the translation, also of Xuanzang, and also other historical considerations. It appears in the Taisho in its own volume, due to its huge size: T27, No. 1545, 阿毘達磨大毘婆沙論, 五百大阿羅漢等造, 三藏法師玄奘奉 詔譯, in a massive 200 which is larger the previous Abhidharma texts combined, and a third of the total Abhidharma literature! The is an older translation, translated by Buddhavarman and Daotai: T28, No. 1546, 阿毘達磨毘婆沙論, 迦旃延子造, 五百羅漢釋, 北涼天竺沙門浮陀跋摩共道泰等譯.
As such an immense text, it contains a huge array of material. This includes the discussion of basically every doctrinal issue of the day, as presented by not only non-Sarvāstivāda views, such as the Vaibhajyavāda, , , and others; but also non-Buddhist systems, such as the , the , and others; and finally of the Sarvāstivāda itself, as represented by its various learned and venerable leaders.
With regards the former two, their 'unorthodox' and 'incorrect' doctrines are taken to task from the perspective of the Buddhist Sarvāstivāda. With regards the latter, several views are often expressed as more detailed descriptions of Sarvāstivāda doctrines. These are often open ended, with no particular explanation favored over another, though sometimes a particular explanation is extolled as being particularly clear and in harmony with the teachings.
Due to both of the above reasons, the literature is particularly useful in not only understanding this school, but in also getting a good perspective on the general state of the Buddha Dharma, and other other non-Buddhist religions at the time.
The Sarvāstivāda of held the as authoritative, and thus were given the moniker of being – 'those of the '. Some scholars feel that some of the texts that are now lost, possibly represented a similar authoritative text as held by the Gandhāra Sarvāstivāda, or other centers of orthodoxy. It was due to the predominance of this text and its teachings at the time, that Vasubandhu engaged in the study thereof, as a compendium that encompassed all the essential teachings.
The Compendia
is a meaning 'compendium', 'treatise' or simply 'explanation', derived from vi + , 'to speak' or 'to explain'. Evidence strongly indicates that there were originally many different texts, mainly commenting on the , but also commenting on other Abhidharma texts too. The relationship between all these texts is very complex, as there is mutual influence, and the texts underwent some development from initial inception to completion. The Taisho has three, however, which are compendiums on the J?ānaprasthāna, and its six legs: the , the and the .
, by Katyāyāniputra
Of these three, the is considered prominent. Its authorship is traditionally attributed to five hundred arhats, some 600 years after the of the . Its compilation, however, is attributed to a certain Katyāyāniputra. This date and authorship is based on the translation, also of Xuanzang, and also other historical considerations. It appears in the Taisho in its own volume, due to its huge size: T27, No. 1545, 阿毘達磨大毘婆沙論, 五百大阿羅漢等造, 三藏法師玄奘奉 詔譯, in a massive 200 which is larger the previous Abhidharma texts combined, and a third of the total Abhidharma literature! The is an older translation, translated by Buddhavarman and Daotai: T28, No. 1546, 阿毘達磨毘婆沙論, 迦旃延子造, 五百羅漢釋, 北涼天竺沙門浮陀跋摩共道泰等譯.
Contents
As such an immense text, it contains a huge array of material. This includes the discussion of basically every doctrinal issue of the day, as presented by not only non-Sarvāstivāda views, such as the Vaibhajyavāda, , , and others; but also non-Buddhist systems, such as the , the , and others; and finally of the Sarvāstivāda itself, as represented by its various learned and venerable leaders.
With regards the former two, their 'unorthodox' and 'incorrect' doctrines are taken to task from the perspective of the Buddhist Sarvāstivāda. With regards the latter, several views are often expressed as more detailed descriptions of Sarvāstivāda doctrines. These are often open ended, with no particular explanation favored over another, though sometimes a particular explanation is extolled as being particularly clear and in harmony with the teachings.
Due to both of the above reasons, the literature is particularly useful in not only understanding this school, but in also getting a good perspective on the general state of the Buddha Dharma, and other other non-Buddhist religions at the time.
Sarvāstivāda of Kā?mīra
The Sarvāstivāda of held the as authoritative, and thus were given the moniker of being – 'those of the '. Some scholars feel that some of the texts that are now lost, possibly represented a similar authoritative text as held by the Gandhāra Sarvāstivāda, or other centers of orthodoxy. It was due to the predominance of this text and its teachings at the time, that Vasubandhu engaged in the study thereof, as a compendium that encompassed all the essential teachings.
Kaiguang
Kaiguang (: 开光; Pinyin: Kāiguāng）is the Buddhism term in Chinese for consecration of Buddha statue. In Chinese, the literary meaning of Kaiguang is "turn on brightness". The essential process of Kaiguang is to hold a ceremony and let well-achieved monks and nuns chant Buddhism scripture sincerely together so that a divine body of the Buddha is invited to stay on the statue in another dimension. After Kaiguang, the statue becomes the Buddha's tangible body in this dimension and will look after the worshipers.
Whether or not Kaiguang is successfully done depends on whether the monks and nuns participating the Kaiguang process read the Buddhism scriptures sincerely enough.
A Buddha statue that has not gone through Kaiguang is not intelligent and cannot be worshiped. If worshiped, evil spirits may get onto the statue and take advantage of or do harm to the worshipers.
Whether or not Kaiguang is successfully done depends on whether the monks and nuns participating the Kaiguang process read the Buddhism scriptures sincerely enough.
A Buddha statue that has not gone through Kaiguang is not intelligent and cannot be worshiped. If worshiped, evil spirits may get onto the statue and take advantage of or do harm to the worshipers.
Jade Peak Pagoda
The Jade Peak Pagoda is a Chinese pagoda on Jade Spring Hill near Beijing, China. The site was originally an imperial retreat during the Liao Dynasty and was renovated by the Qianlong Emperor in 1752.
The pagoda is a 30 m in height high, has seven stories, has an octagonal base and frame, and is built of brick and stone. Its design imitates the Cishou Pagoda of Jiangtian Temple, Golden Hill, near Zhenjiang, Jiangsu. Its was designed to appear similar to wooden structures. All eight sides on every level feature doors and windows. The walls are thick, and the interior features a wide spiral stone staircase. Niches in the walls of each storey include carved couplets by the Qianlong Emperor and once held a set of bronze Buddhas.
The pagoda is a 30 m in height high, has seven stories, has an octagonal base and frame, and is built of brick and stone. Its design imitates the Cishou Pagoda of Jiangtian Temple, Golden Hill, near Zhenjiang, Jiangsu. Its was designed to appear similar to wooden structures. All eight sides on every level feature doors and windows. The walls are thick, and the interior features a wide spiral stone staircase. Niches in the walls of each storey include carved couplets by the Qianlong Emperor and once held a set of bronze Buddhas.
Humanistic Buddhism
Humanistic Buddhism is a modern Buddhist philosophy practiced mostly by Mahayana Buddhists. It is the integration of people's spiritual practice into all aspects of their daily lives. Buddhist monastics such as Venerable Masters Yin Shun and Hsing Yun pioneered the start of the propagation of Humanistic Buddhism.
Humanistic Buddhism encompasses all of the Buddhist teachings from the time of Gautama Buddha to the present. The goal of Humanistic Buddhism is the bodhisattva way, which means to be an energetic, enlightened, and endearing person who strives to help all beings themselves.
Humanistic Buddhism focuses more on issues of the world rather than on how to leave the world behind; on caring for the living, rather than the dead; on benefiting others, rather than benefiting oneself and on universal salvation, rather than cultivation for only oneself.
According to Venerable Master Hsing Yun, Humanistic Buddhism has the following six characteristics:
*Humanism
The Buddha was neither a spirit--coming and going without leaving a trace-- nor a figment of one’s imagination. The Buddha was a living human being. Just like the rest of us, he had parents, a family, and he lived a life. It was through his human existence that he showed his supreme wisdom of compassion, ethical responsibility, and prajna-wisdom. Thus, he is a Buddha who was also a human being.
*Emphasis on Daily Life
In his teachings, the Buddha placed great importance on daily life as spiritual practice. He provided guidance on everything, from how to eat, dress, work, and live, to how to walk, stand, sit, and sleep. He gave clear directions on every aspect of life, from relations among family members and between friends to how we should conduct ourselves in the social and political arenas.
*Altruism
The Buddha was born into this world to teach, to provide an example, and to bring joy to all beings. He nurtured all beings, for he always had the best interests of others in his mind and heart. In short, his every thought, word, and action arose from a heart filled with deep care and concern for others.
*Joyfulness
The Buddhist teachings give people joy. Through the limitless compassion of his heart, the Buddha aimed to relieve the suffering of all beings and to give them joy.
*Timeliness
The Buddha was born for a great reason: to build a special relationship with all of us who live in this world. Although the Buddha lived some 2,500 years ago and has already entered nirvana, he left the seed of liberation for all subsequent generations. Even today, the Buddha’s ideals and teachings serve as timely, relevant guides for us all.
*Universality
The entire life of the Buddha can be characterized by the Buddha’s spirit of wanting to liberate all beings, without exclusion.
=
Humanistic Buddhism encompasses all of the Buddhist teachings from the time of Gautama Buddha to the present. The goal of Humanistic Buddhism is the bodhisattva way, which means to be an energetic, enlightened, and endearing person who strives to help all beings themselves.
Humanistic Buddhism focuses more on issues of the world rather than on how to leave the world behind; on caring for the living, rather than the dead; on benefiting others, rather than benefiting oneself and on universal salvation, rather than cultivation for only oneself.
Six Characteristics
According to Venerable Master Hsing Yun, Humanistic Buddhism has the following six characteristics:
*Humanism
The Buddha was neither a spirit--coming and going without leaving a trace-- nor a figment of one’s imagination. The Buddha was a living human being. Just like the rest of us, he had parents, a family, and he lived a life. It was through his human existence that he showed his supreme wisdom of compassion, ethical responsibility, and prajna-wisdom. Thus, he is a Buddha who was also a human being.
*Emphasis on Daily Life
In his teachings, the Buddha placed great importance on daily life as spiritual practice. He provided guidance on everything, from how to eat, dress, work, and live, to how to walk, stand, sit, and sleep. He gave clear directions on every aspect of life, from relations among family members and between friends to how we should conduct ourselves in the social and political arenas.
*Altruism
The Buddha was born into this world to teach, to provide an example, and to bring joy to all beings. He nurtured all beings, for he always had the best interests of others in his mind and heart. In short, his every thought, word, and action arose from a heart filled with deep care and concern for others.
*Joyfulness
The Buddhist teachings give people joy. Through the limitless compassion of his heart, the Buddha aimed to relieve the suffering of all beings and to give them joy.
*Timeliness
The Buddha was born for a great reason: to build a special relationship with all of us who live in this world. Although the Buddha lived some 2,500 years ago and has already entered nirvana, he left the seed of liberation for all subsequent generations. Even today, the Buddha’s ideals and teachings serve as timely, relevant guides for us all.
*Universality
The entire life of the Buddha can be characterized by the Buddha’s spirit of wanting to liberate all beings, without exclusion.
=
Huayan school
The Huayan school or Flower Garland is a tradition of Mahayana Buddhist philosophy that flourished in China during the Tang period. It is based on the Sanskrit and on a lengthy Chinese interpretation of it, the Huayan Lun. The name “Flower Garland” is meant to suggest the crowning glory of profound understanding.
The doctrines of the Huayan school ended up having profound impact on the philosophical attitudes of all of East Asian Buddhism. Established during the period of the end of the Sui and beginning of Tang dynasties, this school centered on the philosophy of interpenetration and mutual containment which its founders perceived in the ''''. Yet despite basic reliance on this sutra, much of the technical terminology that the school becomes famous for is not found in the sutra itself, but in the commentaries written by its early founders.
The founding of the school is traditionally attributed to a series of five “patriarchs” who were instrumental in developing the schools' doctrines. These five are: Dushun , Zhiyan , Fazang , and Zongmi . Another important figure in the development and popularization of Huayan thought was the lay scholar Li Tongxuan . Some accounts of the school also like to extend its patriarchship earlier to and Nāgārjuna.
Although there are certain aspects of this patriarchal scheme which are clearly contrived, it is fairly well accepted that these men each played a significant and distinct role in the development of the school: for example, Dushun is known to have been responsible for the establishment of Huayan studies as a distinct field; Zhiyan is considered to have established the basic doctrines of the sect; Fazang is considered to have rationalized the doctrine for greater acceptance by society; Chengguan and Zongmi are understood to have further developed and transformed the teachings.
After the time of Zongmi and Li Tongxuan the Chinese school of Huayan generally stagnated in terms of new development, and then eventually began to decline. The school, which had been dependent upon the support it received from the government, suffered severely during the purge of 841-845, never to recover its former strength. Nonetheless, its profound metaphysics, such as that of the ''Four Dharmadhātu'' of interpenetration, had a deep impact on surviving East Asian schools, especially the school.
The most important philosophical contributions of the Huayan school were in the area of its metaphysics, as it taught the doctrine of the mutual containment and interpenetration of all phenomena: that one thing contains all things in existence, and that all things contain one.
Distinctive features of this approach to Buddhist philosophy include:
* Truth is understood as encompassing and interpenetrating falsehood , and vice-versa
* Good is understood as encompassing and interpenetrating evil
* Similarly, all mind-made distinctions are understood as 'collapsing' in the enlightened understanding of emptiness
Huayan makes extensive use of paradox in argument and literary imagery. The following quote from Dale S. Wright summarizes the range of such devices a reader is likely to encounter in a first foray into Huayan literature:
:The first type of paradox is modeled after paradoxical assertions found in many early Mahayana texts that emphasize the concept emptiness . Beginning with the assertion that a phenomenon, X, is empty , one moves to the further paradoxical implication that X is not X. An example from Fa-tsang is the assertion that “when one understands that origination is without self-nature, then there is no origination.”
:A second type of paradox is derived from two doctrinal sources: the Hua-yen concept of “true emptiness” and the Hua-yen interpretation of the dialectic of the One Mind in the Awakening of Faith. Whereas the first type of paradox worked with the negative assertion that phenomenal form is empty and nonexistent , the second type reverses that claim by asserting that any empty phenomenon is an expression of, and the medium for, the ultimate truth of emptiness. The union of opposites effected here is the identity between conditioned, relative reality and the ultimate truth of suchness . Fa-tsang’s paradoxical assertion illustrates this second type. “When the great wisdom of perfect clarity gazes upon a minute hair, the universal sea of nature, the true source, is clearly manifest.”
:The third variation of paradox is grounded in the Hua-yen doctrine of the “nonobstruction of all phenomena” . According to this doctrine, when the ultimate truth of emptiness becomes manifest to the viewer, each phenomenon is paradoxically perceived as interpenetrating with and containing all others. This paradoxical violation of the conventional order of time and space is best exemplified by Fa-tsang’s famous Essay on the Golden Lion.
:In each and every hair there is the golden lion. All of the lions contained in each and every hair simultaneously and suddenly penetrate into one hair. , within each and every hair there are unlimited lions.
:The common element in all three types of paradox is that they originate in the tension between the two truths, between conventional truth and ultimate truth . Our task of interpreting the significance of paradoxical language in Hua-yen texts, therefore, will begin by working out an initial interpretation of the two truths and the relation between them.
Kang-nam Oh discusses how Taoism influenced Hua-yen Buddhism and how dharmadhatu became qualified with the Taoist term and concept "hsüan":
The first Taoist element that can easily be pointed to in the Hua-yen system is the idea of hsüan. For Hua-yen the hsüan or mystery, profundity, deep truth, darkness, subtleness and the like, is the key word used to represent the whole truth of the dharmadhātu. Chih-yen uses the word hsüan in the title of his magnum opus, Hua-yen ching Sou-hsüan-chi . This implies that the aim of his probing into the Avata?saka -sūtra was to get into the hsüan mystery. Fa-tsang’s monumental commentary on the Avata?saka also has the title T’an-hsüan-chi. And Ch’eng-kuan also calls his commentary on the Fa-chieh-kuan-men “Fa-chieh-hsüan-ching.” Above all, the cardinal doctrine in connection with the dharmadhātu has been throughout these patriarchs of the Hua-yen school, the “ten mysteries” or ten hsüans.
History
The doctrines of the Huayan school ended up having profound impact on the philosophical attitudes of all of East Asian Buddhism. Established during the period of the end of the Sui and beginning of Tang dynasties, this school centered on the philosophy of interpenetration and mutual containment which its founders perceived in the ''''. Yet despite basic reliance on this sutra, much of the technical terminology that the school becomes famous for is not found in the sutra itself, but in the commentaries written by its early founders.
The founding of the school is traditionally attributed to a series of five “patriarchs” who were instrumental in developing the schools' doctrines. These five are: Dushun , Zhiyan , Fazang , and Zongmi . Another important figure in the development and popularization of Huayan thought was the lay scholar Li Tongxuan . Some accounts of the school also like to extend its patriarchship earlier to and Nāgārjuna.
Although there are certain aspects of this patriarchal scheme which are clearly contrived, it is fairly well accepted that these men each played a significant and distinct role in the development of the school: for example, Dushun is known to have been responsible for the establishment of Huayan studies as a distinct field; Zhiyan is considered to have established the basic doctrines of the sect; Fazang is considered to have rationalized the doctrine for greater acceptance by society; Chengguan and Zongmi are understood to have further developed and transformed the teachings.
After the time of Zongmi and Li Tongxuan the Chinese school of Huayan generally stagnated in terms of new development, and then eventually began to decline. The school, which had been dependent upon the support it received from the government, suffered severely during the purge of 841-845, never to recover its former strength. Nonetheless, its profound metaphysics, such as that of the ''Four Dharmadhātu'' of interpenetration, had a deep impact on surviving East Asian schools, especially the school.
Philosophy
The most important philosophical contributions of the Huayan school were in the area of its metaphysics, as it taught the doctrine of the mutual containment and interpenetration of all phenomena: that one thing contains all things in existence, and that all things contain one.
Distinctive features of this approach to Buddhist philosophy include:
* Truth is understood as encompassing and interpenetrating falsehood , and vice-versa
* Good is understood as encompassing and interpenetrating evil
* Similarly, all mind-made distinctions are understood as 'collapsing' in the enlightened understanding of emptiness
Huayan makes extensive use of paradox in argument and literary imagery. The following quote from Dale S. Wright summarizes the range of such devices a reader is likely to encounter in a first foray into Huayan literature:
:The first type of paradox is modeled after paradoxical assertions found in many early Mahayana texts that emphasize the concept emptiness . Beginning with the assertion that a phenomenon, X, is empty , one moves to the further paradoxical implication that X is not X. An example from Fa-tsang is the assertion that “when one understands that origination is without self-nature, then there is no origination.”
:A second type of paradox is derived from two doctrinal sources: the Hua-yen concept of “true emptiness” and the Hua-yen interpretation of the dialectic of the One Mind in the Awakening of Faith. Whereas the first type of paradox worked with the negative assertion that phenomenal form is empty and nonexistent , the second type reverses that claim by asserting that any empty phenomenon is an expression of, and the medium for, the ultimate truth of emptiness. The union of opposites effected here is the identity between conditioned, relative reality and the ultimate truth of suchness . Fa-tsang’s paradoxical assertion illustrates this second type. “When the great wisdom of perfect clarity gazes upon a minute hair, the universal sea of nature, the true source, is clearly manifest.”
:The third variation of paradox is grounded in the Hua-yen doctrine of the “nonobstruction of all phenomena” . According to this doctrine, when the ultimate truth of emptiness becomes manifest to the viewer, each phenomenon is paradoxically perceived as interpenetrating with and containing all others. This paradoxical violation of the conventional order of time and space is best exemplified by Fa-tsang’s famous Essay on the Golden Lion.
:In each and every hair there is the golden lion. All of the lions contained in each and every hair simultaneously and suddenly penetrate into one hair. , within each and every hair there are unlimited lions.
:The common element in all three types of paradox is that they originate in the tension between the two truths, between conventional truth and ultimate truth . Our task of interpreting the significance of paradoxical language in Hua-yen texts, therefore, will begin by working out an initial interpretation of the two truths and the relation between them.
Claims of Taoist influence
Kang-nam Oh discusses how Taoism influenced Hua-yen Buddhism and how dharmadhatu became qualified with the Taoist term and concept "hsüan":
The first Taoist element that can easily be pointed to in the Hua-yen system is the idea of hsüan. For Hua-yen the hsüan or mystery, profundity, deep truth, darkness, subtleness and the like, is the key word used to represent the whole truth of the dharmadhātu. Chih-yen uses the word hsüan in the title of his magnum opus, Hua-yen ching Sou-hsüan-chi . This implies that the aim of his probing into the Avata?saka -sūtra was to get into the hsüan mystery. Fa-tsang’s monumental commentary on the Avata?saka also has the title T’an-hsüan-chi. And Ch’eng-kuan also calls his commentary on the Fa-chieh-kuan-men “Fa-chieh-hsüan-ching.” Above all, the cardinal doctrine in connection with the dharmadhātu has been throughout these patriarchs of the Hua-yen school, the “ten mysteries” or ten hsüans.
Huahujing
The Huahujing is a Taoist book. Although traditionally attributed to Laozi, most scholars believe it is a forgery because there are no historical references to the text until the early 4th century CE. According to Louis Komjathy , the Taoist Wang Fu originally compiled the ''Huahujing'' circa 300 CE, and the extant version probably dates from the 6th century Northern Celestial Masters. The text is honorifically known as the ''Taishang lingbao Laozi huahu miaojing'' . A copy of the ''Huahujing'' was discovered in the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang, and Liu Yi believes the original text dates from around the late 4th or early 5th century.
Emperors of China occasionally organized debates between Buddhists and Taoists, and granted political favor to the winners. The Taoists developed the ''Huahujing'' to support one of their favorite arguments against the Buddhists, writes Holmes Welch , their claim that "Lao Tzu had gone to India after his westward departure from China, and had converted—or become—the Buddha. Buddhism then was only a somewhat distorted offshoot of Taoism."
The ''Huahujing '' is somewhat longer than Laozi's Tao Te Ching taking the form of a question-and-answer dialogue between a young Prince and a learned Master. Thematically the text covers much of the same ground as the ''Tao Te Ching'' elucidating on the concept of the Tao - the universal force that purveys everything and everyone. The ''Huahujing'' makes reference to holistic medicine, Taoist meditation, feng shui, and the I Ching.
The text has been translated into English by Brian Walker and the Taoist priest Hua-Ching Ni.
Emperors of China occasionally organized debates between Buddhists and Taoists, and granted political favor to the winners. The Taoists developed the ''Huahujing'' to support one of their favorite arguments against the Buddhists, writes Holmes Welch , their claim that "Lao Tzu had gone to India after his westward departure from China, and had converted—or become—the Buddha. Buddhism then was only a somewhat distorted offshoot of Taoism."
The ''Huahujing '' is somewhat longer than Laozi's Tao Te Ching taking the form of a question-and-answer dialogue between a young Prince and a learned Master. Thematically the text covers much of the same ground as the ''Tao Te Ching'' elucidating on the concept of the Tao - the universal force that purveys everything and everyone. The ''Huahujing'' makes reference to holistic medicine, Taoist meditation, feng shui, and the I Ching.
The text has been translated into English by Brian Walker and the Taoist priest Hua-Ching Ni.
Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution
The Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution initiated by reached its height in the year 845 . Among its purposes were to appropriate war funds and to cleanse China of foreign influences. As such, the persecution was directed not also towards Buddhism but also towards other other foreign religions such as Zoroastrianism, Christianity etc. Only the native Chinese ideologies of Confucianism and Taoism survived the upheaval in one piece.
Emperor Wuzong's reasons for persecuting the Buddhist church were economic, social, and religious.
* ''Economic reasons'': In 843 the emperor's armies won a decisive battle against the tribes at the cost of almost bankrupting the country. Wuzong's solution to the financial crisis was to go after the wealth that had been accumulated in the Buddhist monasteries. Buddhism had flourished greatly during the Tang period, and its monasteries enjoyed tax-exempt status. In 845, Wuzong closed many Buddhist shrines, confiscated their property, and sent the monks and nuns home to life.
* ''Social reasons'': Confucian intellectuals such as Han Yu railed against Buddhism for undermining the social structure of China. It eroded the loyalty of son to father, and subject to ruler, by encouraging people to leave their families and to become monks and nuns. Once they had been ordained, they stopped engaging in useful economic activity such as agriculture and weaving, and became a burden that had to be supported by the work of others. The persecution sought to return monks and nuns to the ranks of tax-paying commoners engaged in useful economic activity.
* ''Religious reasons'': While Wuzong saw Buddhism as a foreign religion that was harmful to Chinese society, he became a zealous follower of Taoism, a faith which he regarded as native to China. Buddhism preached the attainment of non-birth or nirvana, which its critics equated with death, while Taoism promised immortality, a notion that increasingly captured the attention of the emperor as he grew older and less rational.
An imperial edict of 845 stated the case against Buddhism as follows:
The first phase of the persecution was one aimed at purifying or reforming the Buddhist church rather than exterminating it. Thus, the persecution began in 842 with an imperial edict providing that undesirables such as sorcerers or convicts were to be weeded out from the ranks of the Buddhist monks and nuns and were to be returned to lay life. In addition, monks and nuns were to turn their wealth over to the government; those who wished to keep their wealth would be returned to lay life and forced to pay taxes. During this first phase, Confucian arguments for the reform of Buddhist institutions and the protection of society from Buddhist influence and practices were predominant.
Gradually, however, the Emperor Wuzong became more and more impressed with the claims of Taoism, and came to develope a severe dislike for Buddhism. The Japanese monk Ennin, who lived in China during the persecution, even suggested that the emperor had been influenced by his illicit love of a beautiful Taoist priestess. In addition, as time went by the emperor became more irascible and less sane in his judgments. One of his edicts banned the use of single-wheeled wheelbarrows, since they break up "the middle of the road," an important concept of Taoism. As a result, in 844 the persecution moved into a second phase the objective of which was the extermination rather than the reformation of Buddhism. The emperor issued edicts that Buddhist temples and shrines be destroyed, that all monks be defrocked, that the property of the monasteries be confiscated, and that Buddhist paraphernalia be destroyed. An edict providing that foreign monks be defrocked and returned to their homelands resulted in Ennin's expulsion from China.
In 846, the Emperor Wuzong passed away, perhaps on account of the Taoist elixirs of life he had been consuming. Shortly thereafter, his successor proclaimed a general amnesty. The persecution was over.
The suppression of monasteries and persecution of foreign religions was part of a reformation undertaken. The persecution lasted for twenty months -- not long, but long enough to have permanent effects. Buddhism, for all its strength, never completely recovered. For centuries afterwards, it was merely a tolerated religion. The days of its greatest building, sculpture, and painting, and its most vital creative thought, were past.
In addition to Buddhism, Wuzong persecuted other foreign religions as well. He all but destroyed Zoroastrianism and Manichaeanism in China, and his persecution of the growing Nestorian Christian churches sent Chinese Christianity into a decline from which it never recovered.
Chinese records state Zoroastrianism and Christianity were regarded as heretical forms of Buddhism, and were included within the scope of the edicts. According to the report prepared by the Board of Worship, there were 4,600 monasteries, 40,000 hermitages , 260,500 monks and nuns. By the edict of AD 845 all these monasteries were abolished with very few exceptions. When the monasteries were broken up the images of bronze, silver or gold were to be handed over to the government:
* Reischauer, Edwin O. ''Ennin's Travels in Tang China''. New York: Ronald Press, 1955.
* Philip, T. V. ''East of the Euphrates: Early Christianity in Asia''. India: CSS & ISPCK, India, 1998
Reasons for the Persecution
Emperor Wuzong's reasons for persecuting the Buddhist church were economic, social, and religious.
* ''Economic reasons'': In 843 the emperor's armies won a decisive battle against the tribes at the cost of almost bankrupting the country. Wuzong's solution to the financial crisis was to go after the wealth that had been accumulated in the Buddhist monasteries. Buddhism had flourished greatly during the Tang period, and its monasteries enjoyed tax-exempt status. In 845, Wuzong closed many Buddhist shrines, confiscated their property, and sent the monks and nuns home to life.
* ''Social reasons'': Confucian intellectuals such as Han Yu railed against Buddhism for undermining the social structure of China. It eroded the loyalty of son to father, and subject to ruler, by encouraging people to leave their families and to become monks and nuns. Once they had been ordained, they stopped engaging in useful economic activity such as agriculture and weaving, and became a burden that had to be supported by the work of others. The persecution sought to return monks and nuns to the ranks of tax-paying commoners engaged in useful economic activity.
* ''Religious reasons'': While Wuzong saw Buddhism as a foreign religion that was harmful to Chinese society, he became a zealous follower of Taoism, a faith which he regarded as native to China. Buddhism preached the attainment of non-birth or nirvana, which its critics equated with death, while Taoism promised immortality, a notion that increasingly captured the attention of the emperor as he grew older and less rational.
An imperial edict of 845 stated the case against Buddhism as follows:
Events of the Persecution
The first phase of the persecution was one aimed at purifying or reforming the Buddhist church rather than exterminating it. Thus, the persecution began in 842 with an imperial edict providing that undesirables such as sorcerers or convicts were to be weeded out from the ranks of the Buddhist monks and nuns and were to be returned to lay life. In addition, monks and nuns were to turn their wealth over to the government; those who wished to keep their wealth would be returned to lay life and forced to pay taxes. During this first phase, Confucian arguments for the reform of Buddhist institutions and the protection of society from Buddhist influence and practices were predominant.
Gradually, however, the Emperor Wuzong became more and more impressed with the claims of Taoism, and came to develope a severe dislike for Buddhism. The Japanese monk Ennin, who lived in China during the persecution, even suggested that the emperor had been influenced by his illicit love of a beautiful Taoist priestess. In addition, as time went by the emperor became more irascible and less sane in his judgments. One of his edicts banned the use of single-wheeled wheelbarrows, since they break up "the middle of the road," an important concept of Taoism. As a result, in 844 the persecution moved into a second phase the objective of which was the extermination rather than the reformation of Buddhism. The emperor issued edicts that Buddhist temples and shrines be destroyed, that all monks be defrocked, that the property of the monasteries be confiscated, and that Buddhist paraphernalia be destroyed. An edict providing that foreign monks be defrocked and returned to their homelands resulted in Ennin's expulsion from China.
In 846, the Emperor Wuzong passed away, perhaps on account of the Taoist elixirs of life he had been consuming. Shortly thereafter, his successor proclaimed a general amnesty. The persecution was over.
Effects on Buddhism
The suppression of monasteries and persecution of foreign religions was part of a reformation undertaken. The persecution lasted for twenty months -- not long, but long enough to have permanent effects. Buddhism, for all its strength, never completely recovered. For centuries afterwards, it was merely a tolerated religion. The days of its greatest building, sculpture, and painting, and its most vital creative thought, were past.
Effects on other religions
In addition to Buddhism, Wuzong persecuted other foreign religions as well. He all but destroyed Zoroastrianism and Manichaeanism in China, and his persecution of the growing Nestorian Christian churches sent Chinese Christianity into a decline from which it never recovered.
Chinese records state Zoroastrianism and Christianity were regarded as heretical forms of Buddhism, and were included within the scope of the edicts. According to the report prepared by the Board of Worship, there were 4,600 monasteries, 40,000 hermitages , 260,500 monks and nuns. By the edict of AD 845 all these monasteries were abolished with very few exceptions. When the monasteries were broken up the images of bronze, silver or gold were to be handed over to the government:
Sources
* Reischauer, Edwin O. ''Ennin's Travels in Tang China''. New York: Ronald Press, 1955.
* Philip, T. V. ''East of the Euphrates: Early Christianity in Asia''. India: CSS & ISPCK, India, 1998
Gongyo
Gongyō is a word that means "assiduous practice" and refers to a performed by followers of nearly every , , and denomination. It is often done once or more times a day and consists of the recitation of a sutra passage or passages, a mantra or matras, or a combination of both. Gongyo can be done at a temple or at home, almost always in front of an and accompanied by offerings of light, incense, and food. Gongyo is also sometimes called ''o-tsutome'' or ''shōjin'' . All three terms are common Japanese words and none is specific to any particular sect or school.
perform a form of gongyo that consists of reciting certain passages of the Lotus Sutra and chanting '''' . As described to some degree below, the format of gongyo varies by and sect. Sometimes these variations are even sources of interschool contention, much as some Christian churches quarrel over the significance of certain of their practices of worship.
In Nichiren Daishonin's Buddhism, Gongyo means to recite the "Expedient Means" or "Hoben" chapter and "The Life Span of the Thus Come One" or "Juryo" chapter of the Lotus Sutra in front of the Gohonzon. This is the supporting practice of all Nichiren Buddhists and is performed together with the chanting of Nam-myoho-renge-kyo, every morning and evening.
:Note: The SGI gongyo format is different from that followed by other Buddhists. They are the only ones who have created their own format and are constantly changing and revising it. Though they were previously the same, from 1991 forward, SGI began to gradually change certain aspects of gongyo, beginning with the phonetics of the recitation of the sutra, followed by the removal of the prose section of the Juryo chapter, the removal of the need to face east in the morning for the first prayer, then the format of the recitation of the sutra, followed by a change of the content of the "silent prayers", and currently a change in the ringing of the bells. These changes also include the addition of Daisaku Ikeda's name as a part of the silent prayers. The latest change in the liturgy book includes the translation of the sutra in English. Following its 1992 ex-communication by the Nichiren Shoshu priesthood, SGI eventually changed its format by permitting the omission of certain recitations and allowing for variations based on national and personal preferences. Somewhere between the end of 2002 and early 2004, SGI had standardized its prayer format to its present version until 2007 at which time it changed again.
Format for Practicing Nichiren Daishonin's Buddhism:
Sitting in front of the Gohonzon, so that it is in perfect view, one rings a bell and chants prolonged daimoku followed by Nam-Myoho-Renge-Kyo three times to commence Gongyo. The speed of the recitation will be that of a 'galloping horse'.
If it is morning, one faces east and chants daimoku three more times and then offers the first prayer '''Appreciation for Life's Protective Forces'''. In certain countries, all five prayers are recited at the end of gongyo.
One then rings the bell and recites the Expedient Means chapter. Another fact to note, is that if one is chanting with a group, only the leader of the prayer will recite the title of the chapter.
Next, one rings the bell again and recites the Life Span chapter. Upon finishing the recitation, one rings the bell while commencing the repetitive chanting of daimoku for as long as one wishes. There is no rule as to how long one must chant daimoku during gongyo. Some chant for a few moments, some for up to an hour or even longer. One can usually tell when the level of satisfaction is reached in their daimoku as each individual is different.
When one feels enough daimoku has been chanted, one rings the bell and chants daimoku three more times.
One then offers the second prayer, Appreciation for the Gohonzon, the third prayer, Appreciation for Nichiren Daishonin, Nikko Shonin and Nichimoku Shonin, the fourth prayer, for the attainment of Kosen-rufu and the Bodhisattvas of the Earth, and Personal Prayers, and the fifth prayer, Prayer for the Deceased and prayer for the impartial benefits of Nam Myoho Renge Kyo to spread to all beings in the universe and to raise the life condition of every one on the Earth..
One chants three daimoku upon the end of each prayer and prolonged daimoku at the end of gongyo.
In the evening, one does not offer the first prayer, but goes directly to the second, third and fifth prayers along with daimoku.
Nichiren Shu has many types of Gongyo a person can perform. One example of family service procedure is as follows :
#Invocation
#Kaikyo-ge
#Lotus Sutra Ch. 2 Hoben-pon
#Lotus Sutra Ch. 16 Juryo-hon
#Chanting Odaimoku Namu Myoho Renge Kyo
#Lotus Sutra last part of Ch. 11 Hoto-ge
#Prayer
#Four Great Vows:
Sentient beings are innumerable; I vow to save them all.
Our evil desires are inexhaustible; I vow to quench them all.
The Buddha's teachings are immeasurable; I vow to study them all.
The way of the Buddha is unexcelled; I vow to attain the path sublime.
Ch. 2 and Ch. 16 are recited the most frequently; however, you may recite Ch. 12 Daibadatta-hon, whole Ch. 16, Ch. 21 Jinriki-hon or Ch. 25 Kannon-gyo. Furthermore, it is a great practice to recite the whole Lotus Sutra from the beginning little by little everyday. You may choose which chapter to read by yourself.
In Nichiren Shu, Recitation of the Lotus Sutra can be performed in Japanese or your own language.
In Nichiren Shoshu, gongyo is in principle performed twice daily, upon rising and before retiring . It is the act of offering the sutra, ''daimoku'' , and
silent prayers to the , the object of veneration. Offering the sutra entails reciting the Expedient Means and the Life Span of the Tathagata chapters of the Lotus Sutra; the silent prayers are five formal meditations expressing gratitude for the as , and the merit accrued through Buddhist practices.
The sutra recitation is done in the Japanese pronunciation of Myōhō-Renge-Kyō, the Chinese translation of the Lotus Sutra by Kumarajiva. The number of recitations depends on which silent prayer is to be offered. The established format consist of five in the morning and three in the evening, with the Expedient Means and Life Span of the Tathagata chapters recited once for each silent prayer offered. The full Life Span of the Tathagata Chapter is recited only for the second prayer ; for all others, only the "verse" portion is recited. Each recitation of the sutra passages is followed three "prolonged ''daimoku''" and the corresponding silent prayer, except for the final recitation of the service, which is followed by the chanting of 100 or more ''daimoku'' and the final silent prayer. Note that the number of or the length of time daimoku is chanted between the final sutra recitation and silent prayer, is discretionary.
Variations on this basic gongyo format, consisting of different combinations of the Expedient Means Chapter and parts of the Life Span of the Tathagata Chapter, are also offered on certain occasions, such as at mid-day meetings, before chanting ''daimoku'' for extended periods, and at funerals and celebrations.
The most important gongyo service in Nichiren Shoshu is the Ushitora Gongyo performed daily by the high priest or his proxy . Ushitora Gongyo takes place in the Grand Reception Hall of and follows the format of the five-prayer morning gongyo service. It is done between the eponymous hours of the ox and the tiger , usually starting at 02:30 and taking about 50 minutes. Its purpose is to pray for the worldwide propagation of Nichiren Shoshu Buddhism and—by extension—the peace and prosperity of all the world's peoples.
The significance of performing Ushitora Gongyo at this time of day derives from earlier Buddhist teachings that describe the hour of the ox as "the end of darkness" and the hour of the tiger as "the beginning of light," and ones that describe all Buddhas as having attained enlightenment at this time. The passage from the hour of the ox to the hour of the tiger therefore symbolizes the transition from the unenlightened condition of a common mortal to the enlightened condition of a Buddha, so the performance of gongyo at this hour as serves as a reminder of the true purpose of Buddhist practice: to achieve in this lifetime.
Though in principle Nichiren Shoshu clergy and lay practitioners alike perform gongyo following the three-prayer–five-prayer format passed down through the ages at Head Temple Taisekiji, sometimes people under schedule pressure perform shorter variations while increasing the amount of ''daimoku'' they offer. This is because chanting as much ''daimoku'' as possible is the main practice of the Nichiren Shoshu faithful, whereas the sutra recitations are an auxiliary practice. Further, when circumstances prevent someone from performing gongyo according to established convention, it is better to do a shortened version and chant lots of ''daimoku'' than to lose daily contact with the Gohonzon.
The concept of ''gongyō'' is also common in Japanese Pure Land Buddhist schools such as Jodo Shu and Jodo Shinshu. The central practice of these schools is the recitation of the name of Amida, also called the nembutsu, but in daily practice a Pure Land practitioner will also chant excerpts of the , particular the sections titled the ''Sanbutsuge'' or the ''Juseige'', and in some temples chanting the entire may occur once daily or alternatively only on more formal occasions.
In larger Pure Land temples, the daily service is performed by priests or ministers, and lay people can optionally attend and recite along if they wish. The times for these services will vary depending on the individual branch, and individual temple.
In traditional Jodo Shinshu Buddhism, practitioners may also chant a hymn written by Shinran called the Shoshinge, which is not a sutra ''per se'', but expounds the lineage with which Jodo Shinshu owes its beliefs. A shorter hymn called the ''Junirai'', the Twelve Praises of Amida, can be used as well.
In Jodo Shu, the nembutsu is often recited is specific styles:
* ''Junen'': The nembutsu is recited 8 times in one breath, without the final 'tsu' sound, then recited fully in one breath, and recited a final time without the 'tsu' sound again. This is 10 recitations total
* ''Nembutsu Ichie'': The nembutsu is repeated as many times as the practitioers choose to.
* ''Sanshorai'': The nembutsu is recited 3 times in a long, drawn-out fashion, after which the practitioner bows. This process is repeated twice more for a total of 9 recitations.
Further information regarding Pure Land daily devotions can be found .
Gongyo in Nichiren Buddhism
perform a form of gongyo that consists of reciting certain passages of the Lotus Sutra and chanting '''' . As described to some degree below, the format of gongyo varies by and sect. Sometimes these variations are even sources of interschool contention, much as some Christian churches quarrel over the significance of certain of their practices of worship.
In Nichiren Daishonin's Buddhism, Gongyo means to recite the "Expedient Means" or "Hoben" chapter and "The Life Span of the Thus Come One" or "Juryo" chapter of the Lotus Sutra in front of the Gohonzon. This is the supporting practice of all Nichiren Buddhists and is performed together with the chanting of Nam-myoho-renge-kyo, every morning and evening.
:Note: The SGI gongyo format is different from that followed by other Buddhists. They are the only ones who have created their own format and are constantly changing and revising it. Though they were previously the same, from 1991 forward, SGI began to gradually change certain aspects of gongyo, beginning with the phonetics of the recitation of the sutra, followed by the removal of the prose section of the Juryo chapter, the removal of the need to face east in the morning for the first prayer, then the format of the recitation of the sutra, followed by a change of the content of the "silent prayers", and currently a change in the ringing of the bells. These changes also include the addition of Daisaku Ikeda's name as a part of the silent prayers. The latest change in the liturgy book includes the translation of the sutra in English. Following its 1992 ex-communication by the Nichiren Shoshu priesthood, SGI eventually changed its format by permitting the omission of certain recitations and allowing for variations based on national and personal preferences. Somewhere between the end of 2002 and early 2004, SGI had standardized its prayer format to its present version until 2007 at which time it changed again.
Format for Practicing Nichiren Daishonin's Buddhism:
Sitting in front of the Gohonzon, so that it is in perfect view, one rings a bell and chants prolonged daimoku followed by Nam-Myoho-Renge-Kyo three times to commence Gongyo. The speed of the recitation will be that of a 'galloping horse'.
If it is morning, one faces east and chants daimoku three more times and then offers the first prayer '''Appreciation for Life's Protective Forces'''. In certain countries, all five prayers are recited at the end of gongyo.
One then rings the bell and recites the Expedient Means chapter. Another fact to note, is that if one is chanting with a group, only the leader of the prayer will recite the title of the chapter.
Next, one rings the bell again and recites the Life Span chapter. Upon finishing the recitation, one rings the bell while commencing the repetitive chanting of daimoku for as long as one wishes. There is no rule as to how long one must chant daimoku during gongyo. Some chant for a few moments, some for up to an hour or even longer. One can usually tell when the level of satisfaction is reached in their daimoku as each individual is different.
When one feels enough daimoku has been chanted, one rings the bell and chants daimoku three more times.
One then offers the second prayer, Appreciation for the Gohonzon, the third prayer, Appreciation for Nichiren Daishonin, Nikko Shonin and Nichimoku Shonin, the fourth prayer, for the attainment of Kosen-rufu and the Bodhisattvas of the Earth, and Personal Prayers, and the fifth prayer, Prayer for the Deceased and prayer for the impartial benefits of Nam Myoho Renge Kyo to spread to all beings in the universe and to raise the life condition of every one on the Earth..
One chants three daimoku upon the end of each prayer and prolonged daimoku at the end of gongyo.
In the evening, one does not offer the first prayer, but goes directly to the second, third and fifth prayers along with daimoku.
Nichiren Shu
Nichiren Shu has many types of Gongyo a person can perform. One example of family service procedure is as follows :
#Invocation
#Kaikyo-ge
#Lotus Sutra Ch. 2 Hoben-pon
#Lotus Sutra Ch. 16 Juryo-hon
#Chanting Odaimoku Namu Myoho Renge Kyo
#Lotus Sutra last part of Ch. 11 Hoto-ge
#Prayer
#Four Great Vows:
Sentient beings are innumerable; I vow to save them all.
Our evil desires are inexhaustible; I vow to quench them all.
The Buddha's teachings are immeasurable; I vow to study them all.
The way of the Buddha is unexcelled; I vow to attain the path sublime.
Ch. 2 and Ch. 16 are recited the most frequently; however, you may recite Ch. 12 Daibadatta-hon, whole Ch. 16, Ch. 21 Jinriki-hon or Ch. 25 Kannon-gyo. Furthermore, it is a great practice to recite the whole Lotus Sutra from the beginning little by little everyday. You may choose which chapter to read by yourself.
In Nichiren Shu, Recitation of the Lotus Sutra can be performed in Japanese or your own language.
Nichiren Shoshu
In Nichiren Shoshu, gongyo is in principle performed twice daily, upon rising and before retiring . It is the act of offering the sutra, ''daimoku'' , and
silent prayers to the , the object of veneration. Offering the sutra entails reciting the Expedient Means and the Life Span of the Tathagata chapters of the Lotus Sutra; the silent prayers are five formal meditations expressing gratitude for the as , and the merit accrued through Buddhist practices.
The sutra recitation is done in the Japanese pronunciation of Myōhō-Renge-Kyō, the Chinese translation of the Lotus Sutra by Kumarajiva. The number of recitations depends on which silent prayer is to be offered. The established format consist of five in the morning and three in the evening, with the Expedient Means and Life Span of the Tathagata chapters recited once for each silent prayer offered. The full Life Span of the Tathagata Chapter is recited only for the second prayer ; for all others, only the "verse" portion is recited. Each recitation of the sutra passages is followed three "prolonged ''daimoku''" and the corresponding silent prayer, except for the final recitation of the service, which is followed by the chanting of 100 or more ''daimoku'' and the final silent prayer. Note that the number of or the length of time daimoku is chanted between the final sutra recitation and silent prayer, is discretionary.
Variations on this basic gongyo format, consisting of different combinations of the Expedient Means Chapter and parts of the Life Span of the Tathagata Chapter, are also offered on certain occasions, such as at mid-day meetings, before chanting ''daimoku'' for extended periods, and at funerals and celebrations.
The most important gongyo service in Nichiren Shoshu is the Ushitora Gongyo performed daily by the high priest or his proxy . Ushitora Gongyo takes place in the Grand Reception Hall of and follows the format of the five-prayer morning gongyo service. It is done between the eponymous hours of the ox and the tiger , usually starting at 02:30 and taking about 50 minutes. Its purpose is to pray for the worldwide propagation of Nichiren Shoshu Buddhism and—by extension—the peace and prosperity of all the world's peoples.
The significance of performing Ushitora Gongyo at this time of day derives from earlier Buddhist teachings that describe the hour of the ox as "the end of darkness" and the hour of the tiger as "the beginning of light," and ones that describe all Buddhas as having attained enlightenment at this time. The passage from the hour of the ox to the hour of the tiger therefore symbolizes the transition from the unenlightened condition of a common mortal to the enlightened condition of a Buddha, so the performance of gongyo at this hour as serves as a reminder of the true purpose of Buddhist practice: to achieve in this lifetime.
Though in principle Nichiren Shoshu clergy and lay practitioners alike perform gongyo following the three-prayer–five-prayer format passed down through the ages at Head Temple Taisekiji, sometimes people under schedule pressure perform shorter variations while increasing the amount of ''daimoku'' they offer. This is because chanting as much ''daimoku'' as possible is the main practice of the Nichiren Shoshu faithful, whereas the sutra recitations are an auxiliary practice. Further, when circumstances prevent someone from performing gongyo according to established convention, it is better to do a shortened version and chant lots of ''daimoku'' than to lose daily contact with the Gohonzon.
Gongyo in Japanese Pure Land Buddhism
The concept of ''gongyō'' is also common in Japanese Pure Land Buddhist schools such as Jodo Shu and Jodo Shinshu. The central practice of these schools is the recitation of the name of Amida, also called the nembutsu, but in daily practice a Pure Land practitioner will also chant excerpts of the , particular the sections titled the ''Sanbutsuge'' or the ''Juseige'', and in some temples chanting the entire may occur once daily or alternatively only on more formal occasions.
In larger Pure Land temples, the daily service is performed by priests or ministers, and lay people can optionally attend and recite along if they wish. The times for these services will vary depending on the individual branch, and individual temple.
In traditional Jodo Shinshu Buddhism, practitioners may also chant a hymn written by Shinran called the Shoshinge, which is not a sutra ''per se'', but expounds the lineage with which Jodo Shinshu owes its beliefs. A shorter hymn called the ''Junirai'', the Twelve Praises of Amida, can be used as well.
In Jodo Shu, the nembutsu is often recited is specific styles:
* ''Junen'': The nembutsu is recited 8 times in one breath, without the final 'tsu' sound, then recited fully in one breath, and recited a final time without the 'tsu' sound again. This is 10 recitations total
* ''Nembutsu Ichie'': The nembutsu is repeated as many times as the practitioers choose to.
* ''Sanshorai'': The nembutsu is recited 3 times in a long, drawn-out fashion, after which the practitioner bows. This process is repeated twice more for a total of 9 recitations.
Further information regarding Pure Land daily devotions can be found .
Ekottara-agama
The Ekottara-āgama is a collection of Buddhist sutras corresponding to the Pali Anguttara-nikaya.
Apart from a small handful of manuscript fragments found in Central Asia, it only survives in one version preserved in Chinese translation. The precise sectarian affiliation of this Chinese version is not recorded, but a consensus of scholars attribute it to the school. Though this version is formally equivalent to the Pali Anguttara-nikaya, there is a considerable difference in the number of individual sutras contained in each, the Chinese Ekottara-āgama being smaller in size. The Chinese Ekottara-āgama is also noteworthy because it contains a number of sutras which show the influence of Mahayana ideas.
Apart from a small handful of manuscript fragments found in Central Asia, it only survives in one version preserved in Chinese translation. The precise sectarian affiliation of this Chinese version is not recorded, but a consensus of scholars attribute it to the school. Though this version is formally equivalent to the Pali Anguttara-nikaya, there is a considerable difference in the number of individual sutras contained in each, the Chinese Ekottara-āgama being smaller in size. The Chinese Ekottara-āgama is also noteworthy because it contains a number of sutras which show the influence of Mahayana ideas.
Dharma character school
Dharma-character school is the pejorative name for a stream of thought that represented the Indian Yogācāra system of thought in East Asia. One of the founders of the Hosso sect was Tz'u-en.
Its proponents preferred the title Consciousness-only school . The movement that would eventually receive these names was initiated in China by Xuanzang , who, on his return from India, brought with him a wagonload of the most important Consciousness-only texts.
These, with government support and many assistants, he translated into . His disciple Kuiji wrote a number of important commentaries on the Yogacara texts and further developed the influence of this doctrine in China. Kuiji is considered the first patriarch of this school.
The Faxiang teachings were transmitted to Korea and Japan , where they made considerable impact. Although a relatively small Hosso sect exists in Japan to this day, the original tradition has all but died out as an independent sect. However, its Consciousness-only teachings made a major impact on the native East Asian traditions that would later develop, most notably Tiantai, Huayan and Buddhism.
The term ''Faxiang'' itself was first applied to this tradition by the Huayan thinker Fazang , who used it to emphasize the inferiority of Faxiang teachings, which only dealt with the phenomenal appearances of the dharmas in contrast to Huayan, which dealt with the underlying nature on which such phenomenal appearances were based.
*Lusthaus, Dan . ''Quick Overview of the Faxiang School'' 法相宗. Source:
Its proponents preferred the title Consciousness-only school . The movement that would eventually receive these names was initiated in China by Xuanzang , who, on his return from India, brought with him a wagonload of the most important Consciousness-only texts.
These, with government support and many assistants, he translated into . His disciple Kuiji wrote a number of important commentaries on the Yogacara texts and further developed the influence of this doctrine in China. Kuiji is considered the first patriarch of this school.
The Faxiang teachings were transmitted to Korea and Japan , where they made considerable impact. Although a relatively small Hosso sect exists in Japan to this day, the original tradition has all but died out as an independent sect. However, its Consciousness-only teachings made a major impact on the native East Asian traditions that would later develop, most notably Tiantai, Huayan and Buddhism.
The term ''Faxiang'' itself was first applied to this tradition by the Huayan thinker Fazang , who used it to emphasize the inferiority of Faxiang teachings, which only dealt with the phenomenal appearances of the dharmas in contrast to Huayan, which dealt with the underlying nature on which such phenomenal appearances were based.
Refererences
*Lusthaus, Dan . ''Quick Overview of the Faxiang School'' 法相宗. Source:
Dashabhumika
Da?abhūmikā was a sect in China, based around Vasubandhu's Sanskrit sutra of the same name . It was later absorbed in to the Huayan school, which adopted this sutra as part of its own central text.
The Da?abhūmikā shastra is itself one of the most important chapter of the compounded Avatamsaka Sutra, with the Gundhavyuha sutra. It describes the Bodhisattvayana, that is the ten stages to Buddhahood, or rather the ten grounds on which a Bodhisattva marches on its path towards complete Enlightenment, Bodhi. See .
The Da?abhūmikā shastra is itself one of the most important chapter of the compounded Avatamsaka Sutra, with the Gundhavyuha sutra. It describes the Bodhisattvayana, that is the ten stages to Buddhahood, or rather the ten grounds on which a Bodhisattva marches on its path towards complete Enlightenment, Bodhi. See .
Chitsu
Chitsū was a priest of the Hosso School of Japanese Buddhism.
Chitsū
''The Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism'' in mentioning Chitatsu, Hsyan-tsang, Tz'u-en, Dosho, Yamato Province, states that Chitsū was:
A priest of the Dharma Characteristics school in Japan. In 658, together with Chitatsu, he went to China and studied the doctrine of the Dharma Characteristics school under Hsyan-tsang and his disciple Tz'u-en. They brought the doctrine back to Japan. This is known as the second transmission of the doctrine to Japan, following that of Dosho, who went to China in 653 and studied under Hsyan-tsang. Chitsubuilt Kannon-ji temple in Yamato Province to spread the Dharma Characteristics doctrine. In 672 he was appointed administrator of priests.
Nomenclature and etymology
Chitsū
Exegesis
''The Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism'' in mentioning Chitatsu, Hsyan-tsang, Tz'u-en, Dosho, Yamato Province, states that Chitsū was:
A priest of the Dharma Characteristics school in Japan. In 658, together with Chitatsu, he went to China and studied the doctrine of the Dharma Characteristics school under Hsyan-tsang and his disciple Tz'u-en. They brought the doctrine back to Japan. This is known as the second transmission of the doctrine to Japan, following that of Dosho, who went to China in 653 and studied under Hsyan-tsang. Chitsubuilt Kannon-ji temple in Yamato Province to spread the Dharma Characteristics doctrine. In 672 he was appointed administrator of priests.
Chidatsu
Chidatsu was a priest of the Hosso School of Japanese Buddhism.
Chitatsu / Chidatsu
''The Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism'' mentions Hsyan-tsang, Tz'u-en, Dosho of Gango-ji, , Gango-ji, Chitsuare in reference to elucidating that Chitatsu was:
A priest of the Dharma Characteristics school in Japan. In 658, together with Chitsu, he journeyed to China and studied the doctrine of the Dharma Characteristics school under Hsyan-tsang and his disciple Tz'u-en. They brought the doctrine back with them. Earlier, Dosho of Gango-ji temple in Nara went to China in 653 and studied under Hsyan-tsang. On his return he spread the Dharma Characteristics teaching at Gango-ji. Thus Chitatsu and Chitsuare regarded together as the second to propagate the doctrine of this school in Japan. After his return, Chitatsu lived at Gango-ji temple and disseminated the Dharma Characteristics doctrine.
Nomenclature and etymology
Chitatsu / Chidatsu
Exegesis
''The Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism'' mentions Hsyan-tsang, Tz'u-en, Dosho of Gango-ji, , Gango-ji, Chitsuare in reference to elucidating that Chitatsu was:
A priest of the Dharma Characteristics school in Japan. In 658, together with Chitsu, he journeyed to China and studied the doctrine of the Dharma Characteristics school under Hsyan-tsang and his disciple Tz'u-en. They brought the doctrine back with them. Earlier, Dosho of Gango-ji temple in Nara went to China in 653 and studied under Hsyan-tsang. On his return he spread the Dharma Characteristics teaching at Gango-ji. Thus Chitatsu and Chitsuare regarded together as the second to propagate the doctrine of this school in Japan. After his return, Chitatsu lived at Gango-ji temple and disseminated the Dharma Characteristics doctrine.
Chengguan (monk)
Chengguan , was an important representative of the Huayan school of Chinese Buddhism, under whom the school gained great influence. Chengguan was the master of several emperors. With his special relationship to the political leaders, Cheng-kuan earned the title "the Hua-yen Bodhisattva" and was regarded as the fourth patriarch.
Buddhist legends about Emperor Wu of Liang
Emperor Wu of Liang is often credited in Chinese Buddhism as a benefactor to the development of Buddhism in China, known for using Buddhist ideologies for reform during his reign, such as the disallowing of capital punishment or the sacrifice of live animals during ancestral ceremonies. Emperor Wu was known to have supported Buddhist monasteries and helped Buddhist monks. Emperor Wu at one point became a monk himself, although only for a short period of time.
Many stories, most of them are likely to be folk legends, involved the emperor and his interactions with various Buddhist figures.
According to tradition, around 520, during the period of the Southern Dynasties, Bodhidharma, the first Zen patriarch of China, came to visit Emperor Wu in hopes of converting him. Hearing that the emperor was already a Buddhist, there was no need to do so.
During the patriarch's time with the emperor, he started to talk about his building of temples and giving financial support to monastics. He then asked Bodhidharma how much he accumulated in the process. Emperor Wu felt that the patriarch might not know about of the good deeds that he made, so he pointed them out to the patriarch. The patriarch felt that Emperor Wu was providing his own promotion campaign rather than seeking the Dharma to end samsara; instead, he wanted to boast of his own merit and virtue. Thinking that the emperor might have been attached to his own ego, Bodhidharma replied, "Actually, you have no merit and virtue. In truth, no merit and virtue at all."
Perplexed, the Emperor then asked, "Well, what is the fundamental teaching of Buddhism?" The bewildering reply was "vast emptiness."
"Listen," said the Emperor, now losing all patience, "just who do you think you are?" Bodhidharma replied, "I have no idea."
Bodhidharma originally went to Emperor Wu with the idea of saving him. To the patriarch's dismay, he realized that the emperor was too conceited; he had too high an opinion of himself. Being an emperor was already something, he thought. He had built many temples, enabled people to leave home, given away a lot of money, and made a lot of offerings to the Triple Gem. He thought that he had created a tremendous amount of merit and virtue. Bodhidharma, wanting to shatter the emperor's attachment, replied that he had no merit and virtue at all.
From then on, the emperor refused to listen to whatever Bodhidharma had to say. Although Bodhidharma had come from India to China to become the first patriarch of China, the emperor refused to recognize him. Since he refused to believe in what Bodhidharma told him, he practically missed his chance to come face to face with someone who was important to Buddhism. Bodhidharma knew that he would face difficulty in the near future, but had the emperor been able to leave the throne and yield it to someone else, he could have avoided his fate of starving to death.
According to legends, Emperor Wu's past life was as a monk in the Buddha's time. While he cultivated in the mountains, a monkey would always steal and eat the things he planted for food, as well as the fruit in the trees. One day, he was able to trap the monkey in a cave and blocked the entrance of the cave with rocks, hoping to teach the monkey a lesson. However, after two days, the monk found that the monkey had died of starvation.
It is said that the monkey was reborn into Hou Jing of the Northern Wei Dynasty, who led his soldiers to attack Nanjing. After Nanjing was taken, the emperor was held in captivity in the palace and was not provided with any food, and was left to starve to death. Though Bodhidharma wanted to save him and brought forth a compassionate mind toward him, the emperor failed to recognize him, so there was nothing Bodhidharma could do. Thus, Bodhidharma had no choice but to leave Emperor Wu to die and went into meditation in a cave for nine years.
The emperor is probably best known for being one of the co-authors of a major scripture in Chinese Buddhism. A major Buddhist repentance service is named after the emperor. Titled the ''Emperor Liang Jeweled Repentance'', the repentance records and details the reasons behind his wife's transformation, examples of people affected by karma, stories about people receiving retribution, and what one can do to prevent it. The repentance also involves prostrations to a number of Buddhas.
Historically, Emperor Liang initiated this ceremony approximately 1500 years ago. His wife, Chi Hui, died at age of thirty after leading a life marked by jealousy and anger. After her death, she turned into a giant snake and purgatory . She came to recognize that she needed prayers from the sangha to expiate her sins and release her soul from the lower realms. Through great generosity, Emperor Liang requested Ch'an Master Bao Zhi and other high monastics to write ten chapters of the repentance. As a result of performing this ceremony, his wife's soul was indeed released from its suffering.
It is a popular text amongst many Chinese Buddhists, the text itself is recited and performed annually in many temples, usually during the Qingming Festival or the Ghost Festival.
The emperor and Ch'an Master Bao Zhi were also the creators of the most grandest Buddhist function in Chinese Buddhism, called the ''The Liberation Rite of Water and Land'' . The function basically invites the beings of the higher realms to help the beings in the lower realms get out of their sufferings. The function is composed of seven shrines, each of them holding their own smaller ceremony; the chanting of sutras are involved in each shrine. The heart of the ceremony's activities is the "Inner Shrine", where access is strictly limited to higher monastics, wealthy benefactors, and government officials. Instruments that are not usually used during regular Buddhist functions are used as well. The service also requires the attendance of over one hundred monastics, and a limitless amount of laypersons. Because of cost, it is extremely rare for a Buddhist temple to hold such a ceremony, since it can affect a temple financially.
According to legend, the emperor had a dream in which a monk advised, “The suffering of the beings in the lower realms is immense, why don’t you make offerings to liberate them from their suffering? Among all good deeds, the accumulation of merits through such services is the greatest.” So the emperor called on Venerable Bao Zhi again to organize such a ceremony. Venerable Bao Zhi spent three years creating the concept and compiling the texts for this seven day festival.
Emperor Wu was also fond of playing wéiqí , an ancient board game. There was a famous and knowledgeable monk who was nicknamed the "Kowtow Monk", whom the Emperor respected highly and summoned him often to chat with him.
One day, the Kowtow Monk paid a visit to the palace when the Emperor was playing Go with an official. The Emperor surrounded a big group of stones on the board and was so excited that he yelled, "Kill!" All of a sudden, guards rushed into the palace, seized the Kowtow Monk and executed him outside the palace gate.
Unfortunately, the Emperor was so absorbed in the game that he didn't even know what had transpired. After the game, he remembered the monk and summoned him. The Emperor's guards reported to him that the monk was executed per his order, and the Emperor regretted deeply. On the other hand, the Kowtow Monk didn't know why he was executed, and thought that it was the judgement for killing an earthworm when he was young.
Many stories, most of them are likely to be folk legends, involved the emperor and his interactions with various Buddhist figures.
The Emperor's encounter with Bodhidharma
According to tradition, around 520, during the period of the Southern Dynasties, Bodhidharma, the first Zen patriarch of China, came to visit Emperor Wu in hopes of converting him. Hearing that the emperor was already a Buddhist, there was no need to do so.
During the patriarch's time with the emperor, he started to talk about his building of temples and giving financial support to monastics. He then asked Bodhidharma how much he accumulated in the process. Emperor Wu felt that the patriarch might not know about of the good deeds that he made, so he pointed them out to the patriarch. The patriarch felt that Emperor Wu was providing his own promotion campaign rather than seeking the Dharma to end samsara; instead, he wanted to boast of his own merit and virtue. Thinking that the emperor might have been attached to his own ego, Bodhidharma replied, "Actually, you have no merit and virtue. In truth, no merit and virtue at all."
Perplexed, the Emperor then asked, "Well, what is the fundamental teaching of Buddhism?" The bewildering reply was "vast emptiness."
"Listen," said the Emperor, now losing all patience, "just who do you think you are?" Bodhidharma replied, "I have no idea."
Bodhidharma originally went to Emperor Wu with the idea of saving him. To the patriarch's dismay, he realized that the emperor was too conceited; he had too high an opinion of himself. Being an emperor was already something, he thought. He had built many temples, enabled people to leave home, given away a lot of money, and made a lot of offerings to the Triple Gem. He thought that he had created a tremendous amount of merit and virtue. Bodhidharma, wanting to shatter the emperor's attachment, replied that he had no merit and virtue at all.
From then on, the emperor refused to listen to whatever Bodhidharma had to say. Although Bodhidharma had come from India to China to become the first patriarch of China, the emperor refused to recognize him. Since he refused to believe in what Bodhidharma told him, he practically missed his chance to come face to face with someone who was important to Buddhism. Bodhidharma knew that he would face difficulty in the near future, but had the emperor been able to leave the throne and yield it to someone else, he could have avoided his fate of starving to death.
According to legends, Emperor Wu's past life was as a monk in the Buddha's time. While he cultivated in the mountains, a monkey would always steal and eat the things he planted for food, as well as the fruit in the trees. One day, he was able to trap the monkey in a cave and blocked the entrance of the cave with rocks, hoping to teach the monkey a lesson. However, after two days, the monk found that the monkey had died of starvation.
It is said that the monkey was reborn into Hou Jing of the Northern Wei Dynasty, who led his soldiers to attack Nanjing. After Nanjing was taken, the emperor was held in captivity in the palace and was not provided with any food, and was left to starve to death. Though Bodhidharma wanted to save him and brought forth a compassionate mind toward him, the emperor failed to recognize him, so there was nothing Bodhidharma could do. Thus, Bodhidharma had no choice but to leave Emperor Wu to die and went into meditation in a cave for nine years.
The Emperor Liang Repentance
The emperor is probably best known for being one of the co-authors of a major scripture in Chinese Buddhism. A major Buddhist repentance service is named after the emperor. Titled the ''Emperor Liang Jeweled Repentance'', the repentance records and details the reasons behind his wife's transformation, examples of people affected by karma, stories about people receiving retribution, and what one can do to prevent it. The repentance also involves prostrations to a number of Buddhas.
Historically, Emperor Liang initiated this ceremony approximately 1500 years ago. His wife, Chi Hui, died at age of thirty after leading a life marked by jealousy and anger. After her death, she turned into a giant snake and purgatory . She came to recognize that she needed prayers from the sangha to expiate her sins and release her soul from the lower realms. Through great generosity, Emperor Liang requested Ch'an Master Bao Zhi and other high monastics to write ten chapters of the repentance. As a result of performing this ceremony, his wife's soul was indeed released from its suffering.
It is a popular text amongst many Chinese Buddhists, the text itself is recited and performed annually in many temples, usually during the Qingming Festival or the Ghost Festival.
The Liberation Rite of Water and Land
The emperor and Ch'an Master Bao Zhi were also the creators of the most grandest Buddhist function in Chinese Buddhism, called the ''The Liberation Rite of Water and Land'' . The function basically invites the beings of the higher realms to help the beings in the lower realms get out of their sufferings. The function is composed of seven shrines, each of them holding their own smaller ceremony; the chanting of sutras are involved in each shrine. The heart of the ceremony's activities is the "Inner Shrine", where access is strictly limited to higher monastics, wealthy benefactors, and government officials. Instruments that are not usually used during regular Buddhist functions are used as well. The service also requires the attendance of over one hundred monastics, and a limitless amount of laypersons. Because of cost, it is extremely rare for a Buddhist temple to hold such a ceremony, since it can affect a temple financially.
According to legend, the emperor had a dream in which a monk advised, “The suffering of the beings in the lower realms is immense, why don’t you make offerings to liberate them from their suffering? Among all good deeds, the accumulation of merits through such services is the greatest.” So the emperor called on Venerable Bao Zhi again to organize such a ceremony. Venerable Bao Zhi spent three years creating the concept and compiling the texts for this seven day festival.
Emperor Wu's "order" of the Execution of the Kowtow Monk
Emperor Wu was also fond of playing wéiqí , an ancient board game. There was a famous and knowledgeable monk who was nicknamed the "Kowtow Monk", whom the Emperor respected highly and summoned him often to chat with him.
One day, the Kowtow Monk paid a visit to the palace when the Emperor was playing Go with an official. The Emperor surrounded a big group of stones on the board and was so excited that he yelled, "Kill!" All of a sudden, guards rushed into the palace, seized the Kowtow Monk and executed him outside the palace gate.
Unfortunately, the Emperor was so absorbed in the game that he didn't even know what had transpired. After the game, he remembered the monk and summoned him. The Emperor's guards reported to him that the monk was executed per his order, and the Emperor regretted deeply. On the other hand, the Kowtow Monk didn't know why he was executed, and thought that it was the judgement for killing an earthworm when he was young.
Buddhism in Hong Kong
Buddhism, an and Taoism, a traditional Chinese religion, have a considerable number of adherents in Hong Kong , although the numbers of true Buddhists who have taken are only 700 thousand. and there are more than 600 temples in the HKSAR. The history of some of these temples can be traced back to more than 700 years ago, while some others have been built in recent years. Notable temples include the Wong Tai Sin Temple located in the Wong Tai Sin District in Kowloon. This popular temple is dedicated to the Taoist deity, Wong Tai Sin. Besides that, the Chi Nin Nunnery in Diamond Hill is a group of temple structures in Tang Dynasty's architectural style. It is now open to the public following the completion of its redevelopment in 2000.
The Po Lin Monastery on Lantau Island is famous for the outdoor bronze statue, Tian Tan Buddha, which attracts a large number of visitors during the weekends and holidays. It is now linked to the city's latest tourist attraction Ngong Ping 360 Skyrail . The cable car and park complex is built around a Buddhism theme, featuring sites of the Wisdom Path and the Po Lin Monastery.
Besides, buddhists'organizations and temples in Hong Kong have long been involved in social welfare and education in the city. The Buddhist's Association of Hong Kong operates a dozen primary and secondary schools, hospices and elderly homes as well as centres for youth and children in Hong Kong. See sites: and
The leadership of mainstream buddhists organizations have aligned themselves with the establishment in Hong Kong. For example, high-ranking Buddhist Association's executives have openly endorsed the re-election of the city's Chief Executive Donald Tsang. Several of the association's members were on the drafting committee of the Basic Law - Hong Kong's mini constitution.
Under the leadership of the former Tung Chee Hwa, the SAR government formally recognized the influence of Buddhism in Hong Kong. In 1997 the SAR government designated one public holiday in May or June to mark Buddha’s birthday, which replaced the Queen’s birthday. This year Buddha’s birthday is on May 24th. Tung himself is a Buddhist and participated in major, widely publicised Buddhist activities in Hong Kong and China.
Academic studies and research of Buddhism in Hong Kong have thrived over the past 10 years. The University of Hong Kong has a Centre of Buddhist Studies . The Chinese University of Hong Kong also has a Centre for the Study of Humanistic Buddhism .
The Po Lin Monastery on Lantau Island is famous for the outdoor bronze statue, Tian Tan Buddha, which attracts a large number of visitors during the weekends and holidays. It is now linked to the city's latest tourist attraction Ngong Ping 360 Skyrail . The cable car and park complex is built around a Buddhism theme, featuring sites of the Wisdom Path and the Po Lin Monastery.
Besides, buddhists'organizations and temples in Hong Kong have long been involved in social welfare and education in the city. The Buddhist's Association of Hong Kong operates a dozen primary and secondary schools, hospices and elderly homes as well as centres for youth and children in Hong Kong. See sites: and
The leadership of mainstream buddhists organizations have aligned themselves with the establishment in Hong Kong. For example, high-ranking Buddhist Association's executives have openly endorsed the re-election of the city's Chief Executive Donald Tsang. Several of the association's members were on the drafting committee of the Basic Law - Hong Kong's mini constitution.
Under the leadership of the former Tung Chee Hwa, the SAR government formally recognized the influence of Buddhism in Hong Kong. In 1997 the SAR government designated one public holiday in May or June to mark Buddha’s birthday, which replaced the Queen’s birthday. This year Buddha’s birthday is on May 24th. Tung himself is a Buddhist and participated in major, widely publicised Buddhist activities in Hong Kong and China.
Academic studies and research of Buddhism in Hong Kong have thrived over the past 10 years. The University of Hong Kong has a Centre of Buddhist Studies . The Chinese University of Hong Kong also has a Centre for the Study of Humanistic Buddhism .
Amoghavajra
Amoghavajra was a prolific translator who became one of the most politically powerful Buddhist monks in Chinese history, acknowledged as one of the eight patriarchs of the doctrine in ''Shingon'' lineages.
Born in Samarkand of an father and mother, he went to China at age 10 after his father's death. In 719, he was ordained into the ''sa?gha'' by Vajrabodhi and became his disciple. After all foreign monks were expelled from China in 741, he and some associates went on a pilgrimage to gather texts, visiting Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia and India. During this voyage, he apparently met Nagabodhi, master of Vajrabodhi, and studied the ''Tattvasa?graha'' system at length. He returned to China in 746 with some five hundred volumes.
In 750, he left the court to join the military governorship of Geshu Han, for whom he conducted large-scale tantric initiations at field headquarters. In 754, he translated the first portion of the ''Tattvasa?graha'' , the central text of Buddhist esotericism, which became one of his most significant accomplishments. He regarded its teachings as the most effective method for attaining enlightenment yet devised, and incorporated its basic schema in a number of writings. Amoghavajra was captured in general An Lushan's rebellion but in 757 was freed by loyalist forces, whereupon he performed rites to purify the capital and consolidate the security of the Tang state. Two years later, he initiated the emperor as a ''cakravartin'' . In 765, Amoghavajra used his new rendition of the Scripture for Humane Kings in an elaborate ritual to counter the advance of a 200,000-strong army of Tibetans and which was poised to invade Changan. Its leader, Pugu Huaien, dropped dead in camp and his forces dispersed.
The opulent Jinge temple on Mt. Wutai was completed in 767, a pet project of Amoghavajra's, and one of his many efforts to promote the bodhisattva Ma?ju?rī as the protector of China. Amoghavajra continued to perform rites to avert disaster at the request of the emperor . On his death in 774, three days of mourning were officially declared, and he posthumously received various exalted titles. The Chinese monks Huilang, Huiguo and Huilin were among his most prominent successors. Seventy-seven texts were translated by Amoghavajra according to his own account, though many more, including original compositions, are ascribed to him in the Chinese canons.
Life
Born in Samarkand of an father and mother, he went to China at age 10 after his father's death. In 719, he was ordained into the ''sa?gha'' by Vajrabodhi and became his disciple. After all foreign monks were expelled from China in 741, he and some associates went on a pilgrimage to gather texts, visiting Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia and India. During this voyage, he apparently met Nagabodhi, master of Vajrabodhi, and studied the ''Tattvasa?graha'' system at length. He returned to China in 746 with some five hundred volumes.
In 750, he left the court to join the military governorship of Geshu Han, for whom he conducted large-scale tantric initiations at field headquarters. In 754, he translated the first portion of the ''Tattvasa?graha'' , the central text of Buddhist esotericism, which became one of his most significant accomplishments. He regarded its teachings as the most effective method for attaining enlightenment yet devised, and incorporated its basic schema in a number of writings. Amoghavajra was captured in general An Lushan's rebellion but in 757 was freed by loyalist forces, whereupon he performed rites to purify the capital and consolidate the security of the Tang state. Two years later, he initiated the emperor as a ''cakravartin'' . In 765, Amoghavajra used his new rendition of the Scripture for Humane Kings in an elaborate ritual to counter the advance of a 200,000-strong army of Tibetans and which was poised to invade Changan. Its leader, Pugu Huaien, dropped dead in camp and his forces dispersed.
The opulent Jinge temple on Mt. Wutai was completed in 767, a pet project of Amoghavajra's, and one of his many efforts to promote the bodhisattva Ma?ju?rī as the protector of China. Amoghavajra continued to perform rites to avert disaster at the request of the emperor . On his death in 774, three days of mourning were officially declared, and he posthumously received various exalted titles. The Chinese monks Huilang, Huiguo and Huilin were among his most prominent successors. Seventy-seven texts were translated by Amoghavajra according to his own account, though many more, including original compositions, are ascribed to him in the Chinese canons.
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